Politically, Brexit has been examined as a reflection of broader populist trends, changes in party politics, and shifts in international relations. Oliver, (2016) delves into how Brexit has reshaped the UK's political landscape, while Hobolt, (2016) explores the populist sentiment that drove the Brexit vote. However, while these various dimensions of Brexit have received significant attention, the specific impact of Brexit on migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland remains underexplored, thus motivating the current research. This research study, therefore, seeks to address this research gap by exploring the post-Brexit lived experiences of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. The rural areas of Scotland provide a unique context that is often overshadowed by urban-centric research. The study aims to unpack how Brexit-related changes, from policy shifts to societal attitudes, have impacted these businesses and their assimilation within their communities. Migrant entrepreneurship in rural areas plays a vital role in the economic development of rural communities, bringing valuable skills, innovative ideas, and job opportunities (Kay, 2016). However, with the United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union, known as Brexit, concerns have emerged regarding the impact of this decision on migrant entrepreneurs operating in rural areas.

Brexit has resulted in changes to migration policies, creating uncertainties for migrant entrepreneurs in rural communities (Dhingra, 2017). These changes may affect their ability to operate businesses, access markets, and establish residency rights. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the implications of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurship in rural areas and understand the challenges and opportunities they face. Taking a critical perspective, this study aims to go beyond surface-level analysis and delve into the underlying dynamics that shape the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). It will explore how factors such as gender, ethnicity, social class, and migration status intersect with rural contexts, influencing the entrepreneurial journeys of migrants (Rzepnikowska, 2019).

This study focuses on the lived experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland post-Brexit, addressing a critical gap in the literature. While previous research has emphasized urban contexts or generalized national impacts, rural Scotland represents a unique socio-political landscape that is underexplored. The geographic scope is limited to rural regions in Scotland, which are defined by their economic reliance on traditional industries, demographic challenges, and political ethos distinct from other UK regions (de Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). Temporally, the study examines the period following the Brexit referendum in 2016, capturing the evolving socio-political dynamics and their long-term implications for migrant entrepreneurs. The contribution of this research is threefold. First, it advances academic understanding by bridging the gaps between migration studies, rural sociology, and political economy, offering a nuanced analysis of how Brexit has reshaped rural dynamics. Second, it provides a critical evaluation of Scottish Government policies, highlighting disparities between inclusivity rhetoric and systemic realities. Third, it offers practical insights for policymakers and community stakeholders, emphasizing the need for more equitable and inclusive approaches to supporting migrant businesses in rural areas. By situating rural Scotland within broader national and global contexts, the research contributes to international debates on migration, resilience, and socio-political integration.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Scottish Government defines rurality as areas with settlements comprising up to 9,999 people and at least 30 minutes' drive from urban centers (Scot PHO, 2021). This definition forms the basis of the Scottish Urban Rural Classification (SURC), which categorizes Scotland’s regions based on accessibility and population density. This classification provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the varying degrees of remoteness and economic opportunity across rural Scotland. The SURC is used to shape policies that address the unique challenges faced by different rural regions.

The 6-fold classification system used in Scotland by the National Records of Scotland (NRS, 2018) distinguishes between urban and rural areas based on a variety of criteria, such as accessibility to services, infrastructure, and distance from urban hubs. The six categories in this system are as follows:

Large Urban Areas: Areas with populations over 125,000 people. This includes cities like Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Other Urban Areas: Areas with populations between 10,000 and 125,000 people. This category includes medium-sized towns and cities.

Accessible Small town: Areas with population 10,000 or more

Accessible Rural Areas: Areas with populations less than 10,000 people but located within 30 minutes' drive of a larger urban area. These areas have relatively good transport links and access to services.

Remote Rural Areas: Areas with populations of less than 10,000 people located more than 30 minutes from the nearest urban area. These areas face greater challenges in terms of accessibility, services, and infrastructure.

Very Remote Rural Areas: Areas with populations of less than 10,000 people located more than an hour’s drive from a larger urban area. These regions are the most economically and socially isolated and face significant challenges in terms of infrastructure and access to essential services.

This classification allows policymakers to understand the unique challenges faced by different types of rural areas in Scotland and tailor interventions accordingly. Accessible rural areas, for example, may have more opportunities for economic diversification due to proximity to urban centers, while very remote rural areas are likely to experience higher levels of economic isolation and social exclusion (Scottish Government, 2021).

The 8-fold classification system, also developed by the National Records of Scotland (NRS, 2018), provides a more granular breakdown of rurality in Scotland. It builds on the 6-fold system by offering a finer distinction between areas that are "remote" and those that are "very remote." The eight categories are as follows:

Large Urban Areas: Population over 125,000.

Other Urban Areas: Population between 10,000 and 125,000.

Accessible Rural Areas: Population less than 10,000 and within 30 minutes’ drive of a larger urban area.

Remote Rural Areas: Population less than 10,000 and more than 30 minutes from an urban area.

Very Remote Rural Areas: Population less than 10,000 and more than an hour’s drive from an urban area.

Very Remote Small Towns: Populations of less than 1,000 people located over an hour’s drive from urban centers.

Remote Small Towns: Populations of less than 1,000 people located more than 30 minutes from urban centers.

Accessible Small Towns: Small towns with populations under 10,000, located within 30 min’ drive of a larger urban area.

This system helps to understand the varying degrees of remoteness within rural areas and the degree of accessibility to essential services and markets. The fine distinction between remote and very remote areas is crucial for assessing how these regions can be supported economically and socially. Very remote areas are more likely to face higher costs for transportation, health services, and access to education, while accessible rural areas have the potential for more diversified economies due to their proximity to urban areas (Scottish Government, 2019).

Each category in the 6-fold and 8-fold classification systems represents distinct challenges and opportunities for rural areas in Scotland: Accessible Rural Areas often benefit from proximity to urban areas, which offers better access to markets, services, and transportation infrastructure. These areas are more likely to experience economic growth due to their accessibility. Remote and Very Remote Rural Areas face considerable challenges due to their isolation, lack of infrastructure, and limited access to services. These regions are often characterized by lower levels of economic activity and higher rates of depopulation, with younger generations migrating to urban centers for better opportunities. These areas may also struggle to retain migrant populations who are critical for sustaining key industries (Rolfe, 2022). Small towns in rural Scotland, particularly those in remote areas, often face difficulties in sustaining local services and maintaining population levels. This is exacerbated by the migration of young people to larger cities in search of employment, leaving behind an aging population (McColl, 2019).

Scottish Rurality and the Post-Brexit Landscape

Scottish rurality represents a unique socio-economic and cultural landscape that is deeply interconnected with global processes of migration, trade, and policy. The historical evolution of rural Scotland, marked by events such as the Highland Clearances and the development of traditional industries, provides essential context for understanding how Brexit has reshaped these spaces. As Brexit disrupts labour mobility and market access, rural areas must navigate a complex intersection of demographic shifts, economic vulnerabilities, and policy misalignment.

Rural Scotland has long been characterized by its economic reliance on agriculture, fishing, and tourism, industries that have historically attracted migrant labour to address seasonal and skill-specific shortages (Scottish Government, 2021). This economic interdependence reflects (Woods, 2007) concept of the "global countryside," where rural areas are shaped by transnational flows of labour, goods, and culture. For example, EU migrants have been instrumental in sustaining the agricultural and hospitality sectors, filling critical gaps in labour markets and contributing to the diversification of rural economies (Markova, 2022). However, the loss of free movement post-Brexit has disrupted this global connectivity, created workforce shortages and increased operational costs. Rural Scotland faces demographic challenges that further complicate the post-Brexit landscape. Aging populations, declining birth rates, and outmigration threaten the sustainability of local economies, particularly in remote areas. Migrants have historically played a vital role in addressing these challenges by revitalizing rural communities through entrepreneurship and cultural contributions (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). However, Brexit-induced immigration restrictions have constrained these contributions, highlighting the precariousness of rural Scotland’s reliance on migration as a mechanism for economic and social stability.

Rural Scotland, historically characterized by economic vulnerabilities such as depopulation, aging demographics, and reliance on traditional industries, has seen these challenges intensify under Brexit. The withdrawal from the EU disrupted funding mechanisms, labour mobility, and trade frameworks, creating a volatile environment for key sectors such as agriculture, fishing, and tourism. For instance, fishing communities in Aberdeenshire report severe difficulties in accessing EU markets due to increased regulatory requirements and delays at customs, which have reduced profitability (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). Similarly, agricultural businesses in Argyll and Bute face escalating compliance costs, with many producers unable to meet the stringent EU standards that were previously streamlined under single-market membership (Scottish Government, 2021). These disruptions disproportionately affect migrant-owned businesses, which often lack the financial and operational buffers to adapt to such external shocks. Labour shortages, driven by Brexit-induced immigration restrictions, have exacerbated these challenges. Historically, rural Scotland’s agricultural and hospitality sectors have relied heavily on seasonal EU workers, particularly from Eastern Europe, to address workforce gaps (Fetzer & Witte, 2019). The cessation of free movement has led to unharvested crops, reduced service capacity, and increased operational inefficiencies, reflecting the fragility of these sectors when disconnected from global labour networks (Springford, 2021).

Migrant entrepreneurs, particularly in agriculture and tourism, have faced significant socio-political and legal uncertainties, amplified by the EU Settlement Scheme. While designed to regulate residency rights, this scheme has introduced administrative complexities that have delayed visa renewals and work permits for seasonal labourers. As a result, many businesses have been forced to either downscale their operations or seek alternative, often less effective, staffing solutions (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). This lack of workforce stability underscores the interconnectedness of rural Scotland’s economic systems with global migration flows and reveals the inadequacies of post-Brexit immigration policies. The socio-political environment in rural Scotland has further compounded the challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs. While tight-knit communities often rely on migrants for economic sustainability, Brexit-related narratives have heightened xenophobia and anti-immigration rhetoric, framing migrants as outsiders or economic competitors (Rzepnikowska, 2022). Migrants report increased discrimination, social isolation, and a diminished sense of belonging, which undermine their ability to integrate into local networks and access critical resources. For instance, Polish and Romanian entrepreneurs, who have contributed significantly to Scotland’s agricultural and hospitality sectors, describe how microaggressions and subtle exclusions limit their opportunities for collaboration and business growth (Botterill & Hancock, 2019). These exclusionary dynamics, exacerbated by Brexit’s divisive socio-political climate, highlight the fragility of rural Scotland’s reliance on migrant labour.

Despite these obstacles, migrant entrepreneurs have demonstrated remarkable resilience by adopting innovative strategies to navigate the challenges of the post-Brexit landscape. Many have diversified their operations to reduce dependency on European markets. For example, some migrant-owned farms have shifted focus toward cultivating niche crops tailored to local consumer preferences, while hospitality businesses have targeted domestic tourists to compensate for the decline in international visitors (Wright, Roper & Hart, 2020). This ability to adapt underscores the entrepreneurial agency of migrants, who leverage local opportunities and resources to sustain their businesses amidst economic volatility. Technological innovation has also played a critical role in enhancing the adaptability of migrant-owned businesses. The adoption of e-commerce platforms, online marketing tools, and digital payment systems has enabled many entrepreneurs to reach broader customer bases and improve operational efficiency. For example, some rural hospitality businesses have implemented virtual booking systems to cater to changing consumer behaviors, while agricultural producers have utilized digital platforms to expand direct-to-consumer sales (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). These technological advancements highlight the potential for digital tools to mitigate the immediate impacts of Brexit while fostering long-term economic resilience. Government interventions, though well-intentioned, have often fallen short of addressing the specific needs of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. Initiatives such as the SME Brexit Support Fund and rural development grants provide financial assistance and regulatory guidance to businesses navigating new trade frameworks (Scottish Government, 2021). However, these programs have been critiqued for their limited accessibility. Migrant entrepreneurs frequently report challenges in navigating bureaucratic processes, language barriers, and eligibility restrictions that exclude smaller enterprises from benefiting fully from these initiatives (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). The misalignment between policy frameworks and the lived realities of migrant entrepreneurs underscores the need for more inclusive and targeted measures.

Policy critiques have further highlighted the reductionist framing of migrants within Scottish Government narratives. Programs such as Rural Scotland Key Facts emphasize the economic utility of migrants in addressing labour shortages but often neglect their broader social and cultural contributions (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). This utilitarian approach risks perpetuating exclusionary dynamics, where migrants are valued primarily for their economic productivity rather than as integral members of rural communities. The commodification of migrants within policy discourses not only undermines their social integration but also reinforces systemic inequalities that hinder their ability to thrive. Addressing these challenges requires a more holistic policy approach that balances economic resilience with social cohesion. Tailored interventions-such as localized advisory services, accessible funding mechanisms, and targeted skill development programs-can enhance the capacity of migrant entrepreneurs to adapt to post-Brexit economic conditions. For instance, policies that support digital skill development and e-commerce adoption could help rural businesses overcome geographical isolation and expand market access. Anti-discrimination measures, coupled with community engagement programs, are also critical for fostering inclusive rural environments that support the integration of migrants into local networks and decision-making processes (Benson, Jordan & Smith, 2020). Intersectionality must also be a key consideration in policy design and implementation. Non-EU migrants, who face compounded discrimination due to systemic racism and exclusionary immigration frameworks, require tailored support that acknowledges their unique challenges. Similarly, gender-specific barriers faced by female migrant entrepreneurs, such as limited access to funding and professional networks, must be addressed through targeted initiatives that promote equity and inclusion (Cairney & McGarvey, 2020). Comparative analysis of rural resilience across the UK provides valuable insights into the unique socio-political dynamics of Scotland, particularly in the context of Brexit. Rural resilience refers to the capacity of rural areas to adapt to economic, social, and environmental changes while maintaining and enhancing their functionality. By examining how rural areas in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland have navigated the post-Brexit landscape, this section situates Scotland’s experiences within a broader UK framework, highlighting the distinct challenges and opportunities that shape its socio-political and economic resilience.

The UK’s devolved governance structure has resulted in varied policy responses to Brexit across the four nations. Scotland, for instance, has pursued policies aimed at mitigating Brexit’s impacts on rural economies, such as targeted support for agriculture and small businesses, and emphasizing inclusivity in migration narratives (Scottish Government, 2021). In contrast, England, under UK-wide policies, has focused more heavily on trade liberalization and reducing regulatory burdens for businesses. This has often been criticized for prioritizing large-scale agribusinesses at the expense of smaller rural enterprises (Lang et al., 2021). Wales, like Scotland, has emphasized rural development but with a distinct focus on environmental sustainability, leveraging its natural resources to promote green tourism and renewable energy projects. However, rural Wales has also faced significant challenges due to reduced EU funding for regional development, with fewer localized programs targeting small-scale entrepreneurs compared to Scotland (Morris, 2020). Northern Ireland, on the other hand, occupies a unique position due to the Northern Ireland Protocol, which retains access to the EU single market for goods. While this provides certain trade advantages, it has also created complexities in cross-border trade and heightened political tensions, affecting rural businesses (Hayward & Phinnemore, 2021). These policy divergences underscore the critical role of governance structures in shaping rural resilience. Scotland’s focus on inclusive migration policies and community-driven development reflects its distinct socio-political priorities, contrasting with England’s market-oriented approach and Wales’s emphasis on environmental sustainability. These differences provide a lens to understand how Scotland’s rural resilience is both shaped by and distinct from broader UK dynamics. Across the UK, rural economies have faced common challenges stemming from Brexit, including labour shortages, trade disruptions, and the loss of EU funding. However, the extent and nature of these challenges vary significantly between regions, reflecting differences in economic structures and socio-political contexts. In England, labour shortages in agriculture have been particularly acute, exacerbated by stricter immigration controls and the end of free movement. The heavy reliance on EU migrant labour in industries such as horticulture and food processing has led to significant operational disruptions, forcing many businesses to downsize or automate (Lang, 2021). Scotland, while also experiencing labour shortages, has been somewhat buffered by its smaller-scale agricultural operations and targeted government interventions, such as the Rural Workforce Recruitment and Retention Plan (Scottish Government, 2021). However, these measures have not fully mitigated the impact on sectors like hospitality and tourism, which remain highly reliant on migrant labour. Wales has faced similar economic disruptions, particularly in its sheep farming industry, which is heavily dependent on EU markets. Post-Brexit trade barriers, including tariffs and regulatory checks, have increased costs and reduced competitiveness, posing significant risks to the livelihoods of small-scale farmers (Morris, 2020). In contrast, Scotland’s fishing industry, concentrated in rural areas such as Aberdeenshire, has borne the brunt of Brexit-related trade disruptions, with delays at borders and increased compliance costs undermining access to EU markets (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). Northern Ireland’s unique status under the Northern Ireland Protocol has created both opportunities and challenges for rural businesses. While continued access to the EU single market has supported agricultural exports, new customs check between Northern Ireland and Great Britain have introduced additional costs and uncertainties for small businesses (Hayward & Phinnemore, 2021). These dynamics illustrate how Northern Ireland’s rural resilience is shaped by its geopolitical position, contrasting with the experiences of Scotland, England, and Wales. The social dimensions of rural resilience across the UK also vary significantly, reflecting regional differences in migration dynamics and community attitudes. Scotland has positioned itself as a welcoming nation, with policies emphasizing the economic and social contributions of migrants to rural communities. This approach has fostered a degree of social resilience, as migrant entrepreneurs play a critical role in sustaining rural economies and revitalizing local communities (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). However, challenges remain, particularly in addressing xenophobia and integrating migrants into tight-knit rural societies (Rzepnikowska, 2019). In England, anti-immigration rhetoric during the Brexit campaign has had a lasting impact on community cohesion in rural areas. Migrants often report experiences of hostility and exclusion, which undermine their ability to contribute fully to local economies (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). Wales, while less affected by xenophobic narratives, has struggled to attract and retain migrants in rural areas, exacerbating labour shortages and demographic decline (Morris et al., 2020). Northern Ireland’s rural communities, meanwhile, navigate a complex interplay of ethnic and political identities, with Brexit amplifying tensions around migration and cross-border relations (Hayward & Phinnemore, 2021). These social dynamics highlight Scotland’s relatively inclusive migration narrative as a distinguishing feature of its rural resilience. By framing migrants as integral to rural development, Scotland has created a more supportive environment for migrant entrepreneurs, even as systemic barriers persist. This contrasts with the more exclusionary attitudes observed in other parts of the UK, particularly England. Environmental sustainability is a key component of rural resilience, with Scotland and Wales demonstrating significant progress in integrating environmental objectives into rural development strategies. Scotland’s focus on renewable energy projects, such as wind farms and community-owned hydroelectric schemes, positions it as a leader in sustainable rural development (Scottish Government, 2021). Similarly, Wales has leveraged its natural resources to promote green tourism and sustainable agriculture, aligning its rural development policies with broader environmental goals (Morris et al., 2020). In contrast, England’s approach has been criticized for prioritizing economic growth over environmental sustainability, with less emphasis on long-term resilience in rural areas (Lang et al., 2021). Northern Ireland, while making strides in environmental initiatives, faces unique challenges related to cross-border environmental management and the political complexities of implementing cohesive policies (Hayward & Phinnemore, 2021).

Economic Resilience and Adaptation of Migrant-Owned Businesses in Rural Scotland

Migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland have emerged as critical contributors to the resilience of local economies, particularly in the face of Brexit-induced disruptions. These businesses, which operate in key sectors such as agriculture, hospitality, and retail, represent an intersection between global economic dynamics and localized socio-political challenges. Brexit has amplified vulnerabilities within rural economies, exposing migrant entrepreneurs to legal, financial, and social uncertainties that demand significant adaptability. Examining their adaptive strategies highlights both systemic barriers and the entrepreneurial ingenuity that defines their response to crisis.

A major obstacle has been the loss of free movement, which historically facilitated access to seasonal labour, particularly for migrant-owned agricultural enterprises. Brexit-related immigration restrictions have disrupted labour networks, leaving many farms understaffed during critical planting and harvesting periods. For instance, migrant-owned strawberry farms in the Scottish Highlands report operational inefficiencies due to a lack of workers, leading to unharvested crops and revenue losses (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). These disruptions not only undermine the economic viability of businesses but also exacerbate rural depopulation, as younger workers and entrepreneurs increasingly seek opportunities in urban centers or outside the UK. In response to these challenges, migrant entrepreneurs have implemented diverse strategies to sustain their businesses. Diversification, for instance, has emerged as a key resilience mechanism. Many agricultural entrepreneurs have transitioned from traditional crops to niche products tailored to local and domestic markets, such as organic produce or specialty cheeses. This shift mitigates reliance on disrupted export channels and caters to changing consumer preferences within Scotland (Wright, Roper & Hart, 2020). Similarly, hospitality businesses have reoriented their marketing strategies to target domestic tourism, leveraging Scotland’s cultural and natural assets to attract local visitors in the absence of international travelers (Markova, 2022). Technological innovation has further strengthened the adaptability of migrant-owned businesses. Entrepreneurs have embraced e-commerce platforms, digital marketing, and contactless payment systems to reach broader audiences and enhance operational efficiency. For example, rural hospitality businesses now utilize online booking systems and social media campaigns to attract domestic customers, while agricultural producers leverage digital marketplaces to sell directly to consumers (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). These innovations not only mitigate the immediate impacts of Brexit but also position businesses for long-term sustainability in an increasingly digitalized economy.

Government policies have played a mixed role in supporting the economic resilience of migrant-owned businesses. Programs such as the SME Brexit Support Fund and rural development grants provide financial assistance and regulatory guidance aimed at helping businesses navigate new trade frameworks and immigration regulations (Scottish Government, 2021). However, these initiatives often fail to address the unique needs of migrant entrepreneurs, particularly those in rural areas. Many report difficulties accessing these programs due to bureaucratic hurdles, limited outreach, and eligibility criteria that exclude smaller enterprises (Botterill, McCollum & Tyrrell, 2019). These systemic shortcomings highlight the need for more inclusive policy interventions that prioritize the lived realities of migrant entrepreneurs. Critically, the Scottish Government’s framing of migrants as economic contributors’ risks reinforcing a commodified view of their value. While policies such as Rural Scotland Key Facts emphasize the importance of migrants in addressing labour shortages, they often neglect broader social and cultural dimensions of integration (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). This narrow focus perpetuates exclusionary dynamics, where migrants are valued primarily for their economic productivity rather than as integral members of rural communities. The commodification of migrants not only undermines their social inclusion but also limits their ability to engage meaningfully in local decision-making processes. Intersectionality further complicates the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. Female entrepreneurs, for instance, face compounded barriers related to gender discrimination, limited access to funding, and the dual burden of professional and domestic responsibilities. Non-EU migrants encounter systemic racism and exclusionary immigration frameworks that exacerbate their vulnerabilities, leaving them disproportionately affected by post-Brexit policies (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). These intersectional challenges underscore the need for tailored interventions that address the unique needs of diverse migrant groups. Collaboration and networking have emerged as critical resilience strategies among migrant entrepreneurs. Business forums and local partnerships enable knowledge-sharing, resource pooling, and market exploration, fostering mutual support among entrepreneurs. For example, migrant-owned farms in rural Scotland have collaborated with local suppliers and retailers to develop sustainable, locally sourced products, strengthening community ties and enhancing economic stability (Benson, Jordan & Smith, 2020). However, systemic barriers such as discriminatory lending practices and underrepresentation in local governance hinder the full participation of migrant entrepreneurs in these networks (Rzepnikowska, 2019). Policy critiques reveal significant gaps in the Scottish Government’s approach to supporting migrant entrepreneurs. While initiatives such as rural development grants and skill development programs provide valuable resources, they often fail to engage with the grassroots realities of migrant-owned businesses. Bureaucratic complexities, language barriers, and inconsistent implementation limit the accessibility and effectiveness of these programs, particularly for smaller enterprises and those operating in remote areas (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). Addressing these gaps requires a more intersectional and inclusive policy framework that prioritizes both economic resilience and social cohesion.Looking forward, tailored interventions are essential to fostering the resilience and adaptability of migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland. Policies must move beyond economic framings to address the broader social and cultural dimensions of integration. For instance, localized advisory services could provide targeted support for navigating regulatory complexities, while community engagement programs could foster mutual understanding and reduce xenophobia. Additionally, digital skill development initiatives could enhance the capacity of rural businesses to leverage technology for growth and innovation (Cairney & McGarvey, 2020).

Migrants, Mobility, and Belonging in Post-Brexit Rural Scotland

The migration of EU citizens to the UK, particularly following the 2004 EU enlargement, has been a defining feature of the country's demographic and economic landscape. This literature review explores the mobility patterns of EU migrants, their settlement processes, and the evolving notions of belonging, with a particular focus on rural Scotland. Drawing on a range of studies on migration, mobility, and post-Brexit changes, this review emphasizes the cultural, economic, and political shifts faced by EU nationals and their role in rural communities. European migration to the UK, especially from Eastern European countries, has been significant in shaping the UK's labour markets, with EU nationals often fulfilling labour shortages in industries such as agriculture, hospitality, and construction (Favell, 2008; Eade et al., 2006). Scholars such as Engbersen & Snel, (2013) and Pollard, (2008) have noted the high levels of transnational movement among EU migrants, with many migrating temporarily or moving back and forth between their home countries and the UK in response to economic conditions. Favell, (2008) argued that these migrants are better characterized as "regional free movers" rather than permanent immigrants, engaging in short-term or circular migration driven by economic demand rather than long-term settlement intentions. However, some migrants did eventually settle permanently in the UK, adapting to local communities and integrating over time (Ryan, 2018).

Research on Polish migration to the UK has been particularly insightful in studying processes of settlement and belonging. Grzymala Kazlowska, (2018) describes Polish migrants' experiences as a process of "anchoring," where they form stable relationships in the UK while maintaining connections to their homeland. This transnational approach to migration challenges the binary of temporary versus permanent migration, suggesting that migrants’ intentions may evolve over time, shaped by their experiences in the host country (Ryan, 2018). One of the central elements of EU migration is the legal status of EU nationals, which granted them significant rights to live, work, and settle in the UK through the principle of free movement. EU citizens in the UK, including migrants in rural Scotland, benefitted from these rights, which allowed them to contribute to various sectors of the economy. As Bauböck, (2000) argues, EU citizenship provided a "thin layer of additional rights" that were overlaid on national citizenship, enabling EU nationals to integrate more easily into British society. This system of integration "by default" facilitated EU migrants' access to social services, employment opportunities, and political participation (Mügge & van der Haar, 2016).

However, with the advent of Brexit, the rights of EU nationals were put at risk. Brexit was largely driven by a desire to "take back control" over migration, with the UK's withdrawal from the EU signaling the end of free movement. This shift in immigration policy not only threatens the economic contributions of EU migrants but also their sense of belonging and legal status in the UK (Virdee & McGeever, 2017). Research on the impacts of Brexit on migration and belonging has highlighted the growing uncertainty among EU migrants in the UK, particularly regarding their residency rights, work permits, and access to public services (Burnett, 2017, Fox, 2016). The legal changes introduced post-Brexit have thus fundamentally altered the conditions under which EU migrants live and work in the UK, particularly in rural areas where labour shortages were already a concern (Rzepnikowska, 2018). The issue of belonging is central to the experience of EU migrants in the UK, especially in rural Scotland, where the migrant population has been relatively small but still significant in key industries. For many migrants, their sense of belonging is shaped by their legal status, social integration, and acceptance by local communities (Anthias, 2016). The EU referendum and its aftermath created an environment of heightened uncertainty for migrants, where the political rhetoric around immigration and nationality increasingly framed EU citizens as "outsiders" (Bourdieu, 1992).

As Brexit has exacerbated tensions over national identity and belonging, it has led to an intensification of social exclusion and xenophobia, particularly against Eastern European migrants (Burnett, 2017, Fox, 2016). These migrants, who were once considered part of the "European family" through the free movement framework, have increasingly faced hostility and racialization in public discourse (Burrell, 2010). While some rural communities have welcomed migrants for their economic contributions, others have perceived them as a threat to local culture and employment opportunities (Gustafson, 2009). The process of "othering" has been particularly pronounced in rural areas, where isolation and economic vulnerability can amplify fears of cultural displacement (Rzepnikowska, 2018).

Community Attitudes, Economic Resilience, and Policy Responses Toward Migrant-Owned Businesses in Rural Scotland

Community attitudes in rural Scotland play a critical role in shaping the experiences of migrant-owned businesses, influencing their economic resilience and integration. Brexit has amplified socio-political tensions, creating a paradoxical dynamic where migrants are simultaneously valued for their economic contributions and marginalized as cultural outsiders. These dynamics, combined with the broader impacts of Brexit, highlight the complex interplay between local perceptions, policy responses, and the adaptability of migrant entrepreneurs. On one hand, rural communities in Scotland often recognize the economic importance of migrants in sustaining key sectors such as agriculture, fishing, and hospitality. Migrant entrepreneurs are seen as drivers of innovation, addressing labour shortages and revitalizing local economies through their businesses. For example, in remote areas of the Scottish Highlands, migrant-owned hospitality ventures have not only created jobs but also attracted domestic tourists, bolstering the local tourism sector amidst post-Brexit uncertainty (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). These contributions undcore the significant role of migrant entrepreneurship in rural resilience, particularly in the face of demographic challenges such as aging populations and outmigration. However, this positive framing is often undermined by exclusionary narratives that frame migrants as economic competitors and cultural outsiders. Brexit-related rhetoric has emboldened xenophobic attitudes in some communities, leading to microaggressions and discriminatory practices. For instance, Polish and Romanian entrepreneurs frequently report being stereotyped as "low-skilled" or as taking jobs from local workers, limiting their ability to build trust and establish networks within rural communities (Rzepnikowska, 2019). Such attitudes are further compounded by media narratives that position migrants as a burden on public services or a threat to national identity, perpetuating a climate of exclusion and hostility (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). This duality of welcome and hostility reflects deeper structural inequalities that shape the lived realities of migrant entrepreneurs. While many rural communities appreciate the economic utility of migrants, this recognition often fails to translate into genuine social inclusion. Ahmed’s, (2000) concept of "conditional hospitality" is particularly relevant here, as it highlights how welcome is often contingent on migrants’ ability to conform to local economic and cultural norms. This conditionality creates a fragile sense of belonging, where migrants are valued for their labour but excluded from broader social and political participation.

Government policies have sought to address these challenges through initiatives aimed at fostering rural resilience and supporting migrant entrepreneurs. Programs such as the SME Brexit Support Fund and regional development grants provide financial assistance and skill development opportunities, enabling businesses to navigate the complexities of post-Brexit regulations and market disruptions (Scottish Government, 2021). However, these interventions often fail to address the intersectional barriers faced by migrant entrepreneurs, such as language difficulties, limited access to digital infrastructure, and systemic racism. For example, non-EU migrants frequently report exclusion from funding schemes due to restrictive visa conditions, while EU migrants face bureaucratic hurdles that undermine their ability to access support (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). Moreover, the framing of migrants as economic contributors in policy discourse risks reinforcing exclusionary dynamics. While programs such as Rural Scotland Key Facts emphasize the importance of migrants in addressing labour shortages, they often overlook broader issues of social cohesion and cultural integration (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). This economic framing commodifies migrants, reducing their value to their utility as labourers or entrepreneurs and neglecting their social and cultural contributions to rural communities. Such reductionist narratives not only perpetuate stereotypes but also limit the transformative potential of policy interventions.

Collaborative efforts within rural communities offer a pathway to bridging these divides and fostering mutual understanding. Business networks and cultural exchange programs have proven effective in promoting social cohesion and reducing xenophobic attitudes. For example, migrant entrepreneurs in the hospitality sector have organized community events that showcase cultural diversity while strengthening local ties (Benson, Jordan & Smith, 2020). These initiatives not only enhance the social integration of migrants but also challenge exclusionary narratives by highlighting their contributions to the cultural fabric of rural Scotland. However, significant gaps remain in the implementation and accessibility of these programs. Structural barriers such as discriminatory lending practices, underrepresentation in local governance, and limited outreach efforts continue to hinder the full participation of migrant entrepreneurs in rural economies (Botterill, McCollum & Tyrrell, 2019). Addressing these barriers requires a more intersectional and inclusive policy framework that prioritizes the voices and needs of diverse migrant groups.

The intersection of economic resilience and community attitudes underscores the importance of tailored interventions that go beyond economic outcomes. Anti-discrimination measures, localized advisory services, and digital skill development initiatives are critical to addressing the unique challenges faced by migrant-owned businesses. For instance, digital platforms can enhance market access for rural entrepreneurs, while community engagement programs can foster mutual understanding and reduce xenophobia (Markova et al., 2022). These systemic reforms are essential to creating equitable opportunities for migrants and unlocking their potential as drivers of rural resilience. Additionally, the inclusion of migrants in local decision-making processes is vital to ensuring that policy interventions align with their lived realities. Participatory governance models that incorporate migrant perspectives can enhance the effectiveness of rural development initiatives while fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion. This approach not only strengthens the socio-political integration of migrants but also enhances the sustainability of rural economies by leveraging diverse perspectives and experiences (Cairney & McGarvey, 2020).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology for this study is designed to investigate the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland comprehensively. This mixed-methods approach, grounded in Critical Realism (Bhaskar, 1978), facilitates the exploration of both observable phenomena, such as economic resilience and social integration, and the deeper systemic mechanisms shaping these outcomes. Critical Realism is particularly relevant to this research as it emphasizes the interplay between structural forces, like Brexit-induced policy changes, and individual agency in navigating entrepreneurial challenges. The philosophical foundation of this research is grounded in Critical Realism and Interpretivism, offering a balanced perspective to explore the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. Critical Realism acknowledges the existence of objective structures, such as economic policies and institutional frameworks, while also recognizing the subjective experiences and agency of individuals navigating these structures (Danermark, 2019). This dual perspective is particularly suited for understanding how systemic changes, such as post-Brexit policies, influence migrant entrepreneurs’ lived realities, including their business operations and sense of belonging in host communities. Critical Realism emphasizes the interplay between structure and agency, allowing this research to examine how migrant entrepreneurs adapt to or resist systemic constraints in their socio-political and economic contexts. Complementing this, Interpretivism focuses on the subjective meanings and lived experiences of individuals, particularly how they make sense of their interactions and environments (Carter & Little, 2021). This philosophy is integral to the qualitative aspects of the study, including focus groups and case studies, which aim to uncover how migrant entrepreneurs perceive and navigate challenges such as racial intolerance, access to resources, and social integration. Interpretivism aligns with the study’s goal of understanding the nuanced ways in which Brexit has reshaped migrants’ relationships with host communities and their own entrepreneurial identities. The combination of these philosophical approaches ensures a comprehensive exploration of the research objectives. Critical Realism provides the structural lens necessary to examine policy impacts, economic disruptions, and systemic barriers, while Interpretivism captures the human element-how individuals experience, interpret, and respond to these broader forces. This alignment informs the mixed-methods approach adopted in the study, integrating quantitative methods to identify patterns and trends with qualitative methods to explore deeper, contextualized narratives (Maxwell, 2021). For instance, quantitative survey data highlights economic challenges and policy impacts, while qualitative focus groups and case studies provide rich, narrative-driven insights into personal resilience and community dynamics. By adopting these complementary philosophical stances, the research bridges the gap between objective analysis and subjective understanding, ensuring methodological rigor and depth in addressing the multifaceted impacts of Brexit. This approach not only supports the theoretical and conceptual frameworks but also provides a robust foundation for the mixed-methods design, enabling the study to contribute meaningfully to academic and policy discourses on rural migration, entrepreneurship, and integration. Complementing this philosophical orientation, an interpretivist perspective is adopted to foreground the subjective experiences and narratives of migrant entrepreneurs. This approach ensures a balanced exploration of statistical trends and qualitative insights, providing a nuanced understanding of migrants’ sense of belonging, identity, and resilience in rural Scotland (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To achieve its objectives, the study employs a mixed-methods research design, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches for methodological triangulation. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires administered to 280 participants, comprising 120 EU migrant entrepreneurs and 160 members of rural host communities and stakeholders. These questionnaires combined closed-ended questions, which enabled statistical analysis, with open-ended questions that captured nuanced individual perspectives. The qualitative component included six focus groups, divided evenly between migrant entrepreneurs and host community members, and six in-depth case studies representing diverse entrepreneurial endeavors across Scotland's rural regions. These methods provided a rich dataset that contextualized quantitative trends with qualitative depth.

Data analysis employed both descriptive statistical tools and thematic analysis. SPSS software facilitated the analysis of quantitative data, uncovering patterns in economic performance, social inclusion, and policy impacts. Qualitative data from focus groups and case studies were analyzed thematically, guided by Braun & Clarke’s, (2006) framework. NVivo software was used to manage and code qualitative data systematically, ensuring transparency and rigor in the identification of themes such as economic resilience, policy adaptation, and community dynamics. Rigor in data analysis is crucial for ensuring the reliability, validity, and trustworthiness of findings in a mixed-methods study. This research, which examined the socio-economic impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host communities in rural Scotland, employed both descriptive statistical analysis and thematic analysis. To uphold methodological integrity, distinct criteria of rigor were applied to both quantitative and qualitative components, integrating principles such as reliability, validity, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. For the quantitative data derived from structured questionnaires, the study adhered to rigorous standards of reliability and validity to ensure the robustness of statistical findings.

A pilot study was conducted to refine the questionnaire, ensuring clarity and consistency across items. This process minimized ambiguities and improved the reliability of the instrument, aligning with best practices in quantitative research (Field, 2018). Additionally, the use of SPSS software for data entry and analysis reduced human error, enhancing the dependability of the statistical outputs. Content validity was ensured by designing the questionnaire items to align closely with the research objectives, capturing variables such as demographics, perceptions of Brexit’s economic impacts, and community integration. The inclusion of questions grounded in migration and rural entrepreneurship literature further bolstered construct validity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). While generalizability was not a primary aim, the use of descriptive statistics provided a clear snapshot of participant trends within the studied regions. For qualitative data collected through focus groups, open-ended questionnaire responses, and case studies, the study applied established criteria for qualitative research rigor, including credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Triangulation of data sources (focus groups, case studies, and open-ended responses) ensured that findings were corroborated across methods, enhancing their authenticity. During focus groups, member checking was employed to validate participants’ contributions, ensuring that their narratives were accurately represented (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Additionally, thematic analysis was conducted using Braun and Clarke’s, (2006) framework to systematically identify patterns in participants’ accounts. The study provided thick descriptions of the rural Scottish context, including socio-economic conditions and participant demographics. By situating findings within detailed contextual narratives, the study enabled readers to assess the applicability of its insights to other rural or socio-economic contexts (Nowell, 2017). Dependability in this study was ensured through meticulous documentation of the data analysis process using NVivo software, which created a clear audit trail for the coding process and theme development, making the analysis replicable (Flick, 2018). Reflexivity was maintained throughout to identify and address potential researcher biases, with regular peer debriefings and discussions with academic supervisors used to validate the coding and interpretation processes (Finlay, 2017). NVivo’s systematic approach supported confirmability by providing a transparent method for organizing and analyzing qualitative data, enhancing the objectivity of the findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The integration of quantitative and qualitative approaches strengthened the study’s overall rigor. Descriptive statistics provided a foundation for identifying trends, while thematic analysis contextualized these findings with nuanced insights into participants’ lived experiences. For example, while statistical data indicated that a significant proportion of migrant entrepreneurs faced economic challenges post-Brexit, qualitative themes revealed specific issues such as navigating complex supply chain changes and adapting to new policy requirements. This integration of methods ensured that the findings were both comprehensive and grounded in the realities of participants’ experiences (Flick, 2018). By adhering to rigorous standards across both quantitative and qualitative analyses, this study achieved a balanced integration of breadth and depth in exploring Brexit’s socio-economic impacts. The systematic application of SPSS for quantitative analysis and NVivo for qualitative coding, alongside reflexivity and triangulation, ensured that the findings were reliable, valid, and transferable. These practices not only strengthened the study’s methodological integrity but also contributed to a richer understanding of the research problem.

The sampling strategy combined stratified, purposive, and snowball sampling methods to ensure a diverse and representative participant pool. Rural areas were selected based on the Scottish Government’s Urban/Rural Classification, encompassing accessible, remote, and very remote contexts. This stratification ensured that the study captured a wide range of experiences reflective of Scotland’s diverse rural landscape. Snowball sampling was particularly effective in reaching migrant entrepreneurs in geographically isolated areas.

Ethical considerations were paramount throughout the research process. Ethical approval was obtained from Birmingham City University’s Ethics Committee, and protocols included informed consent, participant anonymity, and the secure storage of data in compliance with GDPR. Sensitive topics, such as discrimination or economic precarity, were addressed carefully to minimize participant distress, and measures were implemented to ensure inclusivity and accessibility, such as providing research materials in multiple languages. Ethical considerations were at the forefront of my study, which examined the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities in Scotland. I adhered strictly to Birmingham City University’s (BCU) ethical guidelines and broader frameworks for ethical research, ensuring that participants’ rights, dignity, and well-being were protected throughout the research process. This section reflects on the ethical protocols I employed and their practical application. By integrating quantitative and qualitative data, this methodology enables a comprehensive exploration of Brexit's multifaceted impacts on migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. This approach not only ensures the validity and reliability of findings but also contributes valuable insights into the academic and policy discourse on migration, entrepreneurship, and rural development.

Before engaging participants, I provided them with detailed Participant Information Sheets (PIS) and consent forms, which outlined the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and their rights. These materials emphasized voluntary participation and their ability to withdraw at any time without consequences. Recognizing the linguistic diversity of the participants, I translated these documents, along with the questionnaires, into Polish, Romanian, Czech, Bulgarian, and Latvian using ChatGPT Pro. While this approach eliminated the need for professional translators and was cost-effective, I carefully reviewed the translations to ensure accuracy and clarity. This step ensured inclusivity and accessibility, allowing participants to fully understand their role in the study (Bryman, 2016). I took rigorous steps to protect participants’ privacy and confidentiality. Personal identifiers were replaced with unique codes during data analysis, and all data were securely stored on encrypted platforms in compliance with GDPR. Only I had access to the raw data, and no personally identifiable information was included in any published findings. These measures ensured that participants’ identities remained confidential and protected throughout the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). As the sole researcher, I embraced reflexivity as a core ethical practice. Throughout the research process, I maintained a reflexive journal to document my assumptions, decisions, and any potential biases. This practice helped me remain transparent and self-aware, ensuring that my interpretations of the data were grounded in participants’ lived experiences rather than influenced by my personal perspectives. Regular peer debriefings with my academic supervisors further validated my findings and reinforced their credibility (Tracy, 2020). Given the sensitive nature of Brexit’s socio-political impacts, I anticipated and addressed potential ethical risks for participants. For example, focus group discussions occasionally involved topics that could evoke emotional distress, particularly when discussing economic challenges or social integration. I ensured that participants could skip any question they found distressing and provided them with information about local support services if needed. To minimize potential discomfort, I conducted separate focus groups for migrant entrepreneurs and host communities, creating a safe and respectful environment for open dialogue (Williams, 2023).

The COVID-19 pandemic introduced additional ethical and logistical challenges. To adhere to public health guidelines, I conducted focus groups and surveys remotely using platforms like Zoom and Qualtrics. These platforms complied with GDPR, ensured data security, and facilitated anonymous participation. This approach also allowed participants in remote rural areas to engage with the study without logistical constraints. Recognizing my position as an outsider to some of the communities involved, I prioritized building rapport with participants (Table 1). I engaged in consistent communication and trust-building interactions to establish legitimacy and foster openness. Although I did not recruit or pay local assistants, my direct involvement in the research allowed me to maintain consistency in my approach and strengthen relationships with participants (Edge, 2020). The research received full ethical approval from BCU’s Ethics Committee prior to data collection. This approval process involved a thorough review of my research methods, consent procedures, and data protection measures. I also engaged in regular discussions with my academic supervisors to ensure that ethical standards were consistently upheld throughout the study. By addressing these ethical considerations, I ensured that the study maintained the highest ethical standards. These measures not only protected participants’ rights and well-being but also enhanced the credibility and trustworthiness of my findings. The rigorous application of these principles allowed me to produce meaningful insights into Brexit’s impacts while respecting the voices and experiences of the individuals involved (Figure 1).

Quantitative Data Analysis: comparison of Brexit Impacts: Host communities vs Migrants Entrepreneurs

The quantitative analysis highlights key differences between the experiences of Host Rural Communities and Migrant Entrepreneurs across economic, social, and political dimensions, based on responses from 85 host community members and 30 migrant entrepreneurs.

Brexit has profoundly influenced both migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities, but their experiences and responses vary significantly across economic, social, and political dimensions. Migrant entrepreneurs reported more severe economic challenges compared to host rural communities. Specifically, 50% of migrant entrepreneurs agreed that Brexit had significantly increased the cost of doing business, such as rising transportation and regulatory compliance costs, compared to 37.6% of host community members. Migrants also reported greater struggles with labour shortages (40%) than hosts (31.8%), largely due to their reliance on EU workers in labour-intensive industries like agriculture and hospitality. These findings suggest that migrant entrepreneurs face compounded economic barriers, while host communities experience a milder but notable impact. Social challenges, including xenophobia and exclusion, are more acutely felt by migrant entrepreneurs. A significant proportion of migrants (30%) agreed that Brexit exacerbated racism and xenophobia, compared to 27.1% of host community members. This disparity reflects the heightened vulnerability of migrants to social biases and discrimination. Furthermore, a sense of belonging was stronger among host rural communities, with 15.7% expressing neutrality about social impacts, compared to 13.3% of migrant entrepreneurs. This indicates that migrants often feel less socially integrated, which could hinder their ability to fully contribute to rural communities.

Migrant entrepreneurs were more critical of post-Brexit policy reforms than host rural communities. While only 8.2% of host respondents disagreed with the effectiveness of policy reforms, 26.7% of migrant entrepreneurs expressed dissatisfaction, citing insufficient support for businesses and regulatory barriers. Similarly, dissatisfaction with the UK’s salary threshold for immigration was higher among migrants (33.3%) compared to host community members (22.4%), reflecting migrants' concerns about the threshold’s inadequacy in attracting skilled workers to rural areas.

The comparison reveals that migrant entrepreneurs experience more significant and multifaceted impacts of Brexit across economic, social, and political dimensions. While both groups face challenges, the severity and nature of these challenges differ: Migrant entrepreneurs struggle more with cost increases and labour shortages due to their reliance on EU systems and policies. Migrants feel a greater emotional toll from xenophobia and a lack of belonging compared to host communities. Migrants perceive post-Brexit policies, including salary thresholds, as less supportive and more restrictive, while host communities’ express moderate dissatisfaction (Table 2).

See below the comments from both Migrant Entrepreneurs and Host Rural Communities reveal a mixed outlook on the impact of Brexit (Figure 2). Migrant Entrepreneurs have highlighted positive shifts, such as exploring non-EU markets and benefiting from flexible immigration policies, though they also face challenges like hiring difficulties and increased hostility. On the other hand, Host Rural Communities acknowledge the potential for economic growth through new trade opportunities and local innovation, but they also face uncertainty in labour markets and community tensions caused by changing immigration laws (Table 3).

INTEGRATION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The integration of qualitative findings from open-ended questions, focus groups, and case studies provides a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurship in rural Scotland, directly aligning with the research objectives of examining the economic, social, and political challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs. The analysis reveals three key themes: economic disruption, social exclusion, and political dissatisfaction, which critically highlight the complex environment these entrepreneurs navigate post-Brexit. Economic challenges, particularly increased operational costs and labour shortages, were pervasive across all data sources. The analysis found that Brexit-induced regulatory changes, such as tariffs and new customs procedures, have led to significant supply chain disruptions and increased business costs (Sampson, 2021). For example, Luis, a Spanish seafood restaurant owner in Aberdeenshire, emphasized the rising prices and delays in seafood supplies, which hindered his business operations (Dustmann et al., 2017). This is consistent with the literature that shows small, rural businesses are disproportionately affected by Brexit's economic disruptions (Goodwin & Heath, 2016). Furthermore, participants highlighted that labour shortages, particularly in sectors like agriculture and hospitality, have been exacerbated by restrictive immigration policies, reflecting the findings of Jones & Martin, (2019) who argue that Brexit’s immigration policies have disproportionately harmed industries dependent on migrant labour. This aligns with the first research objective, demonstrating how Brexit has significantly impacted the economic viability and operational stability of migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland.

Social exclusion and xenophobia emerged as critical themes in the qualitative data, revealing a heightened sense of social isolation and discrimination post-Brexit. Many participants, particularly migrant entrepreneurs like Amara from the Shetland Islands, reported experiencing racial prejudice and social exclusion (Rzepnikowska, 2019). These findings resonate with the work of Goodwin & Heath, (2016) who argue that Brexit has legitimized xenophobic attitudes, particularly in rural areas where cultural diversity is less established. Luis’s experience of subtle hostility from local customers also supports the literature on the rise of nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiment post-Brexit (Rzepnikowska, 2019). The experiences of social exclusion faced by migrant entrepreneurs align with the second research objective, highlighting the social barriers to integration and the emotional toll of xenophobia, which exacerbates the challenges of doing business in rural Scotland. The political dissatisfaction expressed by participants, especially regarding immigration policies, also aligns with the third research objective, which sought to explore the impact of post-Brexit political changes on migrant entrepreneurs. Participants criticized the complexity and rigidity of the new immigration system, which they perceived as a significant barrier to attracting and retaining skilled migrant workers (Vincent, 2021). Markus, a Swedish entrepreneur in Argyll & Bute, reflected on the difficulties his technology startup faced due to restricted access to EU talent, a challenge widely reported in the literature (Jones & Martin, 2019). Furthermore, the disconnect between urban-focused policies and the specific needs of rural businesses, as expressed by participants, mirrors the findings of Krasniqi, (2023) who highlight that rural areas have been underrepresented in Brexit-related policy design. This critique underscores the need for targeted policy interventions to address the unique challenges of rural economies, which aligns with the study’s call for policy reforms that better support migrant entrepreneurs in rural contexts.

In terms of resilience, the qualitative data revealed that many migrant entrepreneurs have demonstrated remarkable adaptability in the face of these challenges. For instance, Luis adapted his business model to focus more on local markets, and Amara forged new relationships with local suppliers to mitigate the impact of trade barriers. These coping strategies are consistent with resilience theory, which emphasizes the ability of businesses to innovate and adjust in response to external disruptions (Smith, 2020). However, the resilience demonstrated by these entrepreneurs does not negate the need for systemic policy changes. The findings suggest that while adaptability is crucial, it is insufficient without supportive policy frameworks that address the economic and social challenges identified. This highlights the importance of a more inclusive and flexible policy environment, as outlined in the research objectives. This study analysis highlights the multifaceted challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland post-Brexit. Economic disruption, including rising costs, labor shortages, and supply chain issues, emerged as a key theme, underscoring the need for targeted policies to support rural businesses and mitigate Brexit’s impacts. Social exclusion and xenophobia, exacerbated by Brexit, created significant barriers to integration and business success, highlighting the importance of inclusive community policies. Additionally, political dissatisfaction with immigration policies, particularly their complexity and rigidity, further deepened the divide between rural and urban areas, emphasizing the need for tailored, flexible policies. While resilience was evident in entrepreneurial adaptations, the findings stress the importance of systemic policy reforms in immigration, business support, and social cohesion to ensure sustainable migrant entrepreneurship in rural Scotland (Jones & Martin, 2019; Rzepnikowska, 2019; Smith, 2020). Given the findings of this study, several recommendations for policy interventions and support mechanisms for migrant entrepreneurs and host communities in rural Scotland are outlined. First, the study highlights the need for targeted economic support for migrant entrepreneurs, particularly those in sectors like agriculture and hospitality that are heavily reliant on migrant labour. This support should include access to financial resources, training programs, and mentorship to help overcome the challenges posed by Brexit. Second, social policies aimed at combating xenophobia and promoting social inclusion are crucial. The rise in discriminatory attitudes towards migrant communities, particularly in the context of Brexit, calls for community-building initiatives, educational campaigns, and anti-discrimination policies that foster social cohesion and integration. Third, immigration policies, particularly the salary threshold for visas, should be re-evaluated to ensure they are conducive to attracting skilled workers to rural areas. The findings suggest that more flexible immigration policies, alongside targeted incentives for businesses in rural areas, could help address labour shortages and promote economic growth.

This chapter has provided a detailed discussion of the mixed-methods findings regarding the impact of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs and host communities in rural Scotland. The integration of both quantitative and qualitative data has enabled a more holistic understanding of the economic, social, and political challenges faced by these groups. The findings underscore the urgent need for inclusive policies that address both economic barriers and social exclusion in order to support the long-term resilience and growth of migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland. The recommendations highlight the necessity of collaborative efforts among policymakers, businesses, and community stakeholders to ensure sustainable, inclusive development in the post-Brexit landscape.

Looking Forward (Conclusion and implications)

This research has examined the significant and multifaceted impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, shedding light on the economic, social, and political dimensions that shape their experiences. The research has addressed critical themes, such as economic challenges, labour shortages, social exclusion, and the resilience of migrant entrepreneurs, using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. In reflecting on the findings and the journey of this study, this chapter provides an opportunity to look both backward at the contributions made by this research and forward at future research avenues, real-world implications, and policy.

Key Themes of the Research Aligned with Theoretical Perspectives

In this section, the key themes that emerged from the research are discussed in relation to the theoretical frameworks that guided this study. The findings of this research on Brexit's impact on migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland provide valuable insights into the economic, social, and political dimensions of this complex issue. By aligning these themes with the theoretical perspectives outlined in Chapter 3, this section aims to demonstrate how the analysis contributes to existing theories in entrepreneurship, migration, and rural economics, while also addressing the central research questions and objectives of the study.

Economic Challenges Post-Brexit

A major theme of this research is the economic challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland following Brexit. These challenges primarily include increased operational costs, labour shortages, and restricted access to financial resources. The findings from both the quantitative survey and qualitative data reveal that Brexit has led to a significant disruption in trade, increased transportation and regulatory costs, and limited access to vital EU financial support mechanisms. To understand the ways in which migrant entrepreneurs adapted to these economic pressures, the study draws upon Dynamic Capabilities Theory (Teece, 2007). This theory is instrumental in explaining how firms, particularly migrant-owned businesses, respond to external environmental changes. The theory highlights the ability of firms to integrate, reconfigure, and leverage internal and external resources in times of disruption. Migrant entrepreneurs in this study showed remarkable resilience by diversifying their business models and seeking new markets outside the EU, a direct response to the financial strain caused by Brexit. Additionally, Resource-Based View (RBV) (Barney, 1991) provides a lens through which to view the vulnerability of migrant entrepreneurs, whose businesses are often smaller, and resource-poor compared to their local counterparts. The lack of access to essential resources, such as loans and EU funds, deepened their financial vulnerability, confirming the theoretical stance that businesses with fewer resources are more susceptible to external economic shocks. The economic challenges identified in this study directly address the first research objective, which was to examine how Brexit impacted the economic viability and operational stability of migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland.

Labour Shortages and Immigration Restrictions

The second key theme that emerged from this research is the severe labour shortages exacerbated by Brexit, particularly in sectors dependent on migrant labour, such as agriculture, hospitality, and food production. The introduction of a points-based immigration system has significantly restricted the free movement of EU workers, leading to a shortage of essential workers in rural industries. Dual Labour Market Theory (Piore, 1979) serves as an important theoretical perspective to understand this theme. The theory suggests that migrant workers typically occupy secondary labour market positions characterized by low wages and poor working conditions. Brexit’s restrictions have compounded these labour shortages by making it harder for businesses in rural areas to fill vacancies, particularly in industries that rely on low-wage, seasonal workers. Policy Feedback Theory (Pierson, 1993) further illuminates how the post-Brexit immigration policies, such as salary thresholds and restrictions on free movement, have long-term consequences for industries in rural Scotland. These policies not only reinforce existing inequalities but also create labour market disruptions that undermine the sustainability of migrant-owned businesses. This theme aligns with the second research objective, which sought to explore how immigration policies, particularly post-Brexit restrictions, affected migrant entrepreneurs' ability to maintain and expand their businesses.

Social Exclusion, Xenophobia, and Discrimination

Social exclusion and xenophobia emerged as critical themes in this study, particularly as Brexit triggered a rise in discriminatory attitudes and social exclusion towards migrant entrepreneurs. These experiences were compounded by increased xenophobia and racism in rural communities, affecting both the business performance and the mental well-being of migrant entrepreneurs. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) provides a theoretical framework for understanding this theme. According to SIT, individuals derive their sense of identity and belonging from their social group memberships. Brexit intensified these group-based dynamics, categorizing migrants as "out-groups" and host communities as "in-groups," leading to greater intergroup tension. The increased xenophobic attitudes reported in the study reflect the exacerbation of these “us versus them” perceptions, which are particularly pronounced in rural areas where community networks are tightly knit. Furthermore, Social Exclusion Theory (Silver, 1994) highlights how individuals and groups are systematically excluded from participation in the broader social, political, and economic life of a society. For migrant entrepreneurs, this exclusion not only affected their sense of belonging but also hindered their ability to integrate into local business networks, ultimately limiting their opportunities for business expansion. This theme directly aligns with the third research objective, which focused on examining the social implications of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs, particularly in terms of discrimination, exclusion, and the impact on their social integration.

Resilience and Adaptability of Migrant Entrepreneurs

Despite the significant challenges posed by Brexit, the resilience and adaptability of migrant entrepreneurs was a consistent theme in this study. Migrant entrepreneurs demonstrated considerable resilience by leveraging their networks, entrepreneurial mindset, and adaptability to overcome barriers. They adopted new strategies such as diversifying their business operations and seeking non-EU markets, illustrating a high level of entrepreneurial resilience. Once again, Dynamic Capabilities Theory (Teece, 2007) proves to be valuable in explaining how migrant entrepreneurs navigated post-Brexit challenges. The theory emphasizes the role of dynamic capabilities in helping firms adjust to changing environments, allowing entrepreneurs to respond to economic disruptions with innovation and strategic flexibility. This theme also resonates with the work of Ram, (2008) who argue that migrant entrepreneurs possess unique capabilities, such as risk-taking and innovation, that allow them to adapt and thrive despite external challenges. This theme addresses the fourth research objective, which aimed to explore how migrant entrepreneurs adapted to the challenges imposed by Brexit, demonstrating their entrepreneurial resilience and ability to navigate adversity.

Economic Contribution of Migrant Entrepreneurs to Rural Communities

The study also uncovered the significant economic contributions of migrant entrepreneurs to rural Scotland. Despite facing numerous challenges, migrant entrepreneurs played a pivotal role in stimulating local economies by creating jobs, fostering innovation, and revitalizing traditional industries. The Social Capital Theory (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1990) offers a useful theoretical perspective for understanding how migrant entrepreneurs utilize their networks to create economic opportunities. These entrepreneurs leverage both local and transnational networks, building businesses, sharing resources, and contributing to economic resilience. By fostering collaboration within their communities, migrant entrepreneurs help ensure the economic sustainability of rural areas, which are otherwise vulnerable to the decline of traditional industries. This theme aligns with the fifth research objective, which examined the positive economic impact of migrant entrepreneurs on rural communities. The findings underscore that migrant-led businesses are vital for rural economic growth, creating new opportunities for employment and economic diversification.

The themes that emerged from this research provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurship in rural Scotland. Through the lens of Social Identity Theory and the related conceptual framework, this research highlights the multifaceted nature of Brexit’s effects on migrant entrepreneurs, including economic, social, and political challenges. These findings underscore the resilience of migrant entrepreneurs and the need for targeted policy interventions to support their businesses in rural contexts. By integrating both quantitative and qualitative data, this research contributes to the academic discourse on migration, entrepreneurship, and rural economics, offering insights that are not only theoretically grounded but also practically relevant for policymakers seeking to support migrant-led businesses in rural areas.

Looking Forward: Future Research and Real-World Implications

This research has shed light on the profound economic, social, and political impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs and rural communities in Scotland. The findings highlight key challenges such as increased operational costs, labour shortages, and heightened social tensions. However, the study also provides a foundation for future research and policy interventions that can further explore these challenges and help shape more resilient rural economies. The following sections outline an agenda for future research and the real-world implications of these findings.

The current research has provided significant insights into the immediate consequences of Brexit on rural Scotland, but there remains much to be explored. Future studies should aim to address the gaps and build upon these findings by considering longer-term trends and developing targeted solutions to mitigate the negative impacts. As the economic consequences of Brexit continue to unfold, longitudinal studies could track how businesses adapt over time. This research would allow for the identification of trends in business performance, labour market shifts, and financial resilience. A longitudinal approach would help assess whether temporary measures, such as government financial support, have provided sustainable benefits or whether more long-term strategies are needed (Fitzgerald, 2020). Future studies could also examine how businesses adjust to new trade barriers and changes in consumer demand over several years.

The labour shortages exacerbated by Brexit have had a particularly significant impact on industries dependent on migrant labour, such as agriculture and hospitality (Cairney & McGarvey, 2020). Future research should explore sector-specific labour market dynamics, examining how different industries have been affected by restricted immigration and how businesses can better address labour shortages. For example, investigating how businesses in agriculture have adjusted to the loss of migrant workers could inform future policies designed to ensure a steady and reliable workforce in key sectors. The social challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs, including xenophobia and exclusion, have been a recurring theme throughout this research. Future studies should explore the long-term effects of Brexit-induced discrimination on social cohesion and integration. Understanding how these social dynamics evolve will be critical for developing policies aimed at improving community relations and supporting the mental well-being of migrant entrepreneurs (Fitzgerald, 2020). This research could explore the effectiveness of community-building initiatives and anti-discrimination policies in mitigating the social tensions exacerbated by Brexit. The UK’s post-Brexit immigration policies have been shown to have significant effects on rural businesses, particularly those reliant on migrant labour. Research focusing on the impact of changes to the immigration system, particularly sector-specific visas and salary thresholds, would be invaluable in understanding how immigration policies can better support rural economies (Bell, 2021). Future research could evaluate whether these policy changes lead to more sustainable workforce solutions and better support systems for migrant entrepreneurs. The research suggests that different regions in rural Scotland may experience the impacts of Brexit in distinct ways. Future studies should examine regional disparities in the effects of Brexit on entrepreneurship, social integration, and labour markets. This would help identify region-specific challenges and opportunities, ensuring that policies are tailored to the unique needs of different rural areas (Simmie, 2020). Regional studies could also investigate whether particular support mechanisms, such as targeted financial grants or mentorship programs, are effective in mitigating the challenges faced by rural entrepreneurs.

Real-World Implications

The findings from this research have important real-world implications for policymakers, business owners, and rural communities. These implications suggest that targeted interventions are needed to address the specific challenges identified and support the long-term growth of rural businesses. The following recommendations outline key actions that can be taken based on the study’s findings. The most significant challenge identified by this research is the impact of Brexit on the availability of migrant workers in rural industries. Policymakers should prioritize reforms to the UK’s immigration policies, making them more flexible and tailored to the needs of specific sectors such as agriculture, food production, and hospitality. These reforms could include introducing sector-specific visas, reducing salary thresholds for industries reliant on low-wage workers, and offering more support for seasonal workers (Macleod, 2021). Such measures would help alleviate the labour shortages that have become a pressing issue for rural businesses. Migrant entrepreneurs have faced unique challenges, such as limited access to financial resources and difficulties in navigating local business environments. To address these challenges, support mechanisms should be developed to assist migrant entrepreneurs in overcoming barriers to business success. This could include providing access to financial grants and loans, offering mentoring programs, and creating opportunities for networking with local business owners (Arnaudo, 2020). These initiatives could empower migrant entrepreneurs to build more resilient businesses, contributing to the economic development of rural communities. The social exclusion and xenophobia experienced by many migrant entrepreneurs must be addressed through comprehensive social integration policies. Educational campaigns promoting cultural awareness, anti-discrimination laws, and community-building initiatives are essential to improving social cohesion and fostering inclusive communities (Harris & Woodward, 2020). These measures could help create an environment where migrant entrepreneurs feel supported and valued, reducing the sense of exclusion that many experiences in rural areas. The study has highlighted the need for tailored business support systems that address the specific challenges faced by rural businesses post-Brexit. Policymakers should consider expanding business support schemes to provide targeted financial aid, particularly for migrant-owned businesses struggling with increased operational costs. This could include offering tax relief, creating more accessible funding options, and supporting the development of rural business incubators that foster innovation and entrepreneurship (Scottish Government, 2020). Rural Scotland's businesses, especially those led by migrant entrepreneurs, often face challenges in accessing networks and resources. The research suggests that building stronger community support networks, such as collaborative projects, shared resources, and mentorship programs, can help mitigate the challenges faced by these entrepreneurs. Future policy should encourage the development of these networks, creating an ecosystem where migrant and local entrepreneurs can collaborate, share best practices, and grow together (Wilson & Pout, 2019).

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  Table 1
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  Table 2
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  Table 3