This section sets the stage for the study by outlining its background and rationale. It highlights the need to explore the intersection of Brexit, migration, and entrepreneurship in rural Scotland, an area that has not been adequately addressed in the existing literature. The chapter also introduces the research's objectives and questions, which focus on understanding the economic, social, and political challenges faced by EU migrant entrepreneurs in the post-Brexit landscape. By doing so, it aims to provide a nuanced analysis of how Brexit has reshaped the entrepreneurial activities, sense of belonging, and community dynamics for migrants in rural Scotland. The chapter concludes by presenting the study's theoretical and conceptual frameworks, which guide the analysis of these complex issues. Through this research, the study seeks to contribute new insights into how Brexit has impacted migrant entrepreneurship and inform policy discussions on migration, inclusion, and rural development. The United Kingdom’s decision to leave the European Union (Brexit) has significantly disrupted social, political, and economic landscapes, triggering extensive academic and policy debates. Much of this discourse has focused on urban areas, leaving rural contexts underexplored. Rural Scotland, in particular, presents a unique socio-political and economic landscape that has been profoundly affected by Brexit due to its reliance on EU migrant labour and its distinct cultural identity. EU migrant entrepreneurs, who contribute significantly to rural economies, face compounded challenges stemming from post-Brexit immigration policies, xenophobia, and systemic exclusion. Despite the Scottish Government's emphasis on inclusivity, their lived experiences often reflect structural inequalities and socio-political uncertainty. This research investigates how Brexit has impacted EU migrant entrepreneurs’ economic activities, social integration, and sense of belonging in rural Scotland, with a focus on their interactions with host communities and government policies. The UK's departure from the European Union, commonly referred to as Brexit, represents one of the most significant political and socio-economic shifts in recent British history. It has sparked widespread academic and policy debates, particularly around migration, socio-political cohesion, and economic resilience (Outhwaite, 2017; Seidler, 2018). However, while much of the existing literature explores Brexit's impacts in urban areas or focuses on generalized national trends, the specific experiences of rural communities, particularly in Scotland, remain underexplored. Rural Scotland provides a unique socio-political and cultural context, shaped by geographic isolation, demographic challenges, and a reliance on traditional industries such as agriculture, fishing, and tourism (Botterill & Hancock, 2019; McColl, 2019). This study seeks to address this gap by focusing on the lived experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs operating within these rural landscapes, particularly in the aftermath of Brexit.EU migrant entrepreneurs play a critical role in sustaining rural economies, contributing to labour markets, innovation, and community resilience (Rolfe et al., 2022; Sampson, 2021). Yet, Brexit has created unprecedented challenges for this group, disrupting labour supply chains, imposing new trade restrictions, and intensifying anti-immigrant sentiments in some areas (Virdee & McGeever, 2018; Rzepnikowska, 2019). Migrants in rural areas face compounded challenges due to the geographic isolation and economic precarity of these regions, as well as the ambivalence of host community attitudes toward them (Keriggan & de Lima, 2009; de Lima & Wright, 2009). Processes of welcome and exclusion in rural areas are often framed in binary terms of hostility versus acceptance, but these narratives fail to capture the nuanced and contested nature of migrants’ experiences (Turner et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2023). This study seeks to contribute to the literature by examining these complexities through the lens of migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland.The Scottish context is particularly significant because of its distinct political ethos, which contrasts sharply with other UK regions. Scotland's pro-EU stance, as evidenced by its majority vote to remain in the EU during the Brexit referendum, has shaped its policy narratives around migration and inclusivity (McColl, 2019). The Scottish Government has positioned itself as a more inclusive alternative to Westminster, emphasizing policies that aim to attract and retain migrant talent, particularly in rural areas (de Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). However, critics argue that these inclusivity narratives often mask systemic exclusions and fail to address the lived realities of migrants, particularly in economically and socially precarious rural settings (Krasniqi, 2023). This study critically evaluates these policies, questioning whether they genuinely foster inclusivity or inadvertently perpetuate inequalities. Furthermore, Brexit has amplified xenophobic and exclusionary attitudes in some communities, further complicating the integration of EU migrants (Rzepnikowska, 2019; Virdee & McGeever, 2018). While studies such as those by (Bueltmann & Bulat,2021). examine identity and belonging among EU migrants post-Brexit, they do not address the intersection of these issues with entrepreneurial activities or rural dynamics. This research extends these discussions by focusing on the interrelated economic, social, and political challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, providing a more localized and nuanced analysis. Intersectionality is a critical lens through which this study examines the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs. As Wang, (2023) highlight, overlapping identities such as race, class, and gender significantly shape migrants’ access to resources, resilience, and social integration. By adopting this intersectional approach, this research aims to uncover the differentiated experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, highlighting how systemic barriers and community dynamics interact with individual agency.

In summary, this study offers an original contribution to the literature by bridging multiple dimensions-economic, social, and political-within the specific context of rural Scotland. It challenges the urban-centric bias of existing research, critically evaluates inclusivity policies, and emphasizes the role of migrants’ entrepreneurial resilience in navigating Brexit-induced challenges. By focusing on the unique socio-political and cultural dynamics of rural Scotland, this research not only addresses significant gaps in the literature but also provides actionable insights for policymakers, community stakeholders, and academic debates on migration and rural development.

RESEARCH RATIONALE AND GAP

This study distinguishes itself by focusing on the nuanced experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, a context that remains underexplored in existing Brexit and migration research. Brexit has triggered significant political, economic, and social upheavals, with much of the literature examining its national or urban implications. Scholars such as Ackers & Dwyer, (2004) and McColl, (2019) have provided foundational insights into migration dynamics and Brexit’s socio-economic consequences but have not addressed the distinct challenges faced by migrants in rural regions. Scotland’s rural areas, characterized by their economic reliance on traditional industries and their socio-political distinctiveness, present a unique context that has been largely overlooked. Existing literature often frames rural regions as peripheral to Brexit’s broader impacts, with little attention to their specific dynamics. Research by Bueltmann & Bulat, (2021) for instance, examines EU citizens’ identity and belonging post-Brexit but does not engage with the entrepreneurial activities of migrants in rural Scotland. Similarly, Botterill & Hancock, (2019) explore spatial identities but fail to address how Brexit-induced socio-political uncertainties shape the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs. This study fills these gaps by exploring how Brexit affects migrant-owned businesses, their social integration, and their interactions with Scottish Government policies. Rural Scotland differs significantly from other UK regions due to its geographic isolation, demographic vulnerabilities, and political ethos, which contrasts sharply with the Leave-majority stance seen in England and Wales. This distinctiveness is compounded by Scotland’s reliance on EU labour in industries such as agriculture and fishing, making its rural areas particularly vulnerable to Brexit-induced disruptions. Existing research by de Lima & Wright, (2009) and Keriggan & de Lima, (2009) has explored rural migration dynamics but has not contextualized these within the broader socio-political shifts triggered by Brexit. Furthermore, Scotland’s pro-EU stance has shaped its inclusivity rhetoric, which contrasts with Westminster’s stricter immigration policies, but the effectiveness of this rhetoric in addressing migrants’ lived realities remains unclear (de Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). At the national level, Brexit has been extensively studied for its role in amplifying xenophobia and creating economic uncertainties (Outhwaite, 2017; Virdee & McGeever, 2018). However, these studies lack an analysis of how these broader narratives intersect with rural dynamics in Scotland. This research transitions from national discussions to focus on rural Scotland, providing a layered understanding of how Brexit’s impacts are localized in specific socio-political and economic contexts. This study also engages critically with existing arguments in the literature. For example, while McColl, (2019) highlights the economic contributions of migrants, the focus remains on urban areas. This research builds on these findings by demonstrating how labour shortages and trade disruptions disproportionately affect rural businesses, where migrants play a central role. Similarly, while Rzepnikowska, (2019) documents Brexit-induced xenophobia, this study extends the discussion by examining how these attitudes manifest in rural host communities and impact migrants’ social and economic integration. Additionally, de Lima & Wright’s, (2009) critique of the commodification of migrants is expanded by analyzing post-Brexit policies in Scotland, assessing whether inclusivity initiatives genuinely support migrants or reinforce systemic inequalities.

The study incorporates intersectionality to provide a nuanced analysis of how overlapping identities-such as age, class and gender-shape the lived experiences of migrant entrepreneurs. Wang, (2023) emphasize the importance of intersectionality in rural migration studies but do not address Brexit-specific challenges. By integrating these perspectives, the study offers a comprehensive understanding of the socio-political and economic dimensions of migrant entrepreneurship in rural Scotland. Several scholars have explored the impacts of Brexit on migration, economic activities, and community dynamics across the UK (Ackers & Dwyer, 2004; McColl, 2019; Outhwaite, 2017; Seidler, 2018). Much of this existing literature emphasizes the broader national impacts of Brexit or focuses on urban settings, often neglecting the nuanced and complex experiences of rural communities, particularly in Scotland. Similarly, significant research has been conducted on migrant entrepreneurship (Bueltmann & Bulat, 2021; Botterill and Hancock, 2019) and integration challenges in rural areas (Keriggan & de Lima, 2009; de Lima & Wright, 2009). However, the intersection of Brexit, migrant entrepreneurialism, and rural community dynamics has not been adequately examined.

This research does not aim to generalize the experiences of EU migrants across the UK nor focus solely on the economic aspects of Brexit. Instead, this study uniquely concentrates on EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, analyzing how Brexit has reshaped their socio-economic conditions, sense of belonging, and relationships with host communities. It acknowledges Scotland’s distinctive socio-political context-characterized by its strong pro-EU stance, divergent policy approaches from Westminster, and the critical role of migrants in sustaining rural economies-and explores how this context interacts with broader Brexit-induced challenges. The aim of this study is not to investigate Brexit as an isolated political event or to critique specific government policies in isolation. Instead, the thesis seeks to explore the lived experiences of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, focusing on their entrepreneurial resilience, sense of belonging, and integration within host communities post-Brexit. Central to this exploration are the concepts of inclusion, exclusion, and the "hierarchy of belonging" that Brexit has intensified, particularly in rural settings where geographic isolation and socio-economic vulnerabilities amplify these dynamics (Virdee & McGeever, 2018; Rzepnikowska, 2019).

The research, therefore, seeks to examine how rural Scottish communities-often imagined as idyllic, welcoming, and tightly knit-navigate the tensions introduced by Brexit, particularly regarding their attitudes toward migrant entrepreneurs. This investigation does not aim to present a binary narrative of inclusion versus exclusion; rather, it seeks to uncover the fluid, contested, and context-specific ways in which these dynamics play out within rural communities. By doing so, the study offers a nuanced understanding of how Brexit has reshaped migrant-owned businesses and their relationships with host communities.

The primary research questions guiding this investigation are:

How has Brexit influenced the economic activities and resilience of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland?

How do local attitudes and community dynamics in rural Scotland shape the integration, inclusion, and exclusion of migrant entrepreneurs post-Brexit?

How has Brexit impacted EU migrant entrepreneurs' sense of belonging and identity in rural Scotland?

To what extent do Scottish Government policies support or hinder the entrepreneurial

activities and social belonging of EU migrants in rural areas?

By addressing these questions, the study contributes to ongoing academic discussions on migration, rural studies, and political economy, emphasizing the importance of localized experiences within broader socio-political transformations like Brexit. It bridges gaps in the literature by providing an in-depth analysis of rural Scotland as a unique context, exploring how Brexit has influenced not only migrant entrepreneurship but also the broader socio-political fabric of rural communities.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature on Brexit and its impact, particularly on migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland. The decision for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union, known as Brexit, has had far-reaching consequences across various sectors, influencing not only the UK’s economic landscape but also its social, political, and cultural dynamics. This chapter examines the historical, political, and economic developments leading to Brexit, the referendum itself, and its aftermath, with a specific focus on the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs in rural areas. Brexit’s emphasis on sovereignty, immigration, and economic autonomy has reshaped labour markets, trade frameworks, and migration patterns, particularly affecting industries such as agriculture, hospitality, and fishing in rural Scotland. The chapter also addresses how Brexit has exacerbated existing social and economic inequalities, with a particular focus on how race, gender, and class intersect to influence the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs. Furthermore, the chapter critiques the policy responses from both the UK and Scottish Governments, examining the gaps between the inclusive rhetoric surrounding migration and the practical challenges faced by migrant communities. Through an exploration of these themes, this review sets the stage for understanding the complex and ongoing implications of Brexit for migrant entrepreneurship and rural resilience in Scotland.

Definition and Background of Brexit

Brexit, often referred to as the "British exit," marks the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union (EU), an institution it joined in 1973. This decision, formalized through the 2016 referendum, revealed stark divisions within UK society. A narrow majority of 51.9% voted to leave, while 48.1% chose to remain, reflecting fractures along generational, educational, and geographic lines (Heppell, 2017). Brexit was not a sudden phenomenon but the result of deep-rooted tensions over the UK’s role within Europe, particularly concerning national sovereignty, economic autonomy, and immigration. While proponents of Brexit framed the departure as an opportunity to "take back control" of laws, borders, and trade, opponents emphasized the benefits of EU membership, including economic security and global influence derived from participation in a collaborative political and economic framework (Oliver, 2022).

The rise of Euroscepticism underpinned the Brexit movement, gaining traction during the 1990s and early 2000s. Euroscepticism portrayed the EU as an overreaching and bureaucratic institution that stifled British sovereignty. This narrative evolved into a dominant strand within the Conservative Party, intensifying by the mid-2010s under the pressure of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and public dissatisfaction with EU policies (Hawkins, Keen, & Nakatudde, 2019). Then-Prime Minister David Cameron’s decision to hold the referendum was intended to quell internal party divisions and counter external political threats. However, the referendum ultimately exacerbated ideological divides, revealing conflicting visions of Britain’s identity, role in the world, and priorities in governance (Hobolt & Tilley, 2022).

Brexit also reflected broader socio-economic and cultural grievances that had been building over decades. The 2008 global financial crisis, the eurozone debt crisis, and concerns about EU enlargement heightened skepticism about the EU’s economic stability and relevance to British interests (Makaryan, Brekke, & Brooks, 2018). Immigration, in particular, became a focal point of public discontent. The principle of free movement, a cornerstone of EU membership, was perceived by many leave voters as contributing to economic pressures and cultural disruption. Migration from Eastern Europe, especially following the EU’s 2004 expansion, was framed in political and media narratives as a source of strain on public services and the labour market (Fetzer & Witte, 2019). These concerns, while often overstated, were instrumental in shaping the outcome of the referendum.

The historical and political backdrop of Brexit provides critical context for understanding its implications for migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland. Brexit’s emphasis on sovereignty and autonomy disrupted the frameworks that facilitated cross-border trade, labour mobility, and policy alignment-elements vital to rural economies. The rhetorical construction of sovereignty as a resource to be reclaimed contrasts sharply with the realities faced by migrant entrepreneurs, who depend on integrated economic systems and stable regulatory environments. As subsequent sections will demonstrate, the intersection of Brexit’s ideological underpinnings with its practical consequences has exposed contradictions in policymaking and governance, particularly in rural Scotland.

Historical Events Leading to the Brexit Referendum

To fully grasp Brexit’s far-reaching consequences, it is essential to examine the historical, political, and economic developments that led to the 2016 referendum. While Euroscepticism emerged in response to dissatisfaction with EU regulations and perceptions of bureaucratic overreach, its roots are intertwined with broader debates over national identity, globalization, and the role of state sovereignty. Central to the leave campaign was the notion of “taking back control,” which resonated with voters who perceived EU membership as an infringement on British autonomy (Clarke & Goodwin, 2016). The principle of sovereignty, a recurring theme in Eurosceptic discourse, was framed as a justification for rejecting EU membership. Leave advocates argued that EU institutions limited the UK’s ability to govern itself, asserting that Brexit would restore national decision-making authority. However, this narrative often overlooked the complexities of modern governance, where interdependence among states is essential for addressing shared economic, environmental, and security challenges (Springford, 2021). These debates reflected deeper tensions between globalization and localism, with Brexit positioned as a rejection of supranational governance in favor of perceived self-determination. Economic concerns also played a pivotal role in the lead-up to the referendum. The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent austerity measures intensified public skepticism about economic globalization and its beneficiaries. For many leave voters, Brexit represented an opportunity to redirect financial contributions to domestic priorities and negotiate independent trade agreements (Makaryan, Brekke, & Brooks, 2018). However, remain proponents countered that the economic risks of leaving the EU, including disruptions to trade and investment, would outweigh any potential benefits. Immigration emerged as a particularly divisive issue in the Brexit debate. Political narratives frequently framed free movement as a source of economic strain and cultural disruption, capitalizing on anxieties about migration from Eastern Europe after the EU’s 2004 enlargement (Fetzer and Witte, 2019). These narratives, while rooted in long-standing public concerns, were amplified by media coverage and political rhetoric, which often scapegoated migrants for broader socio-economic challenges (Rzepnikowska, 2022). Political divisions within and between the UK’s major parties also contributed to the polarized nature of the referendum. The Conservative Party grappled with internal conflicts between pro-European moderates and hardline Eurosceptics, while the Labour Party faced challenges in reconciling the pro-European stance of its leadership with the Euroscepticism of its working-class base (Heppell, 2017). Media influence further heightened these divisions, with pro-Brexit outlets emphasizing sovereignty and immigration while remain-supporting media focused on the economic and diplomatic costs of leaving the EU (Partos, Bale, & Webb, 2021). The events leading to the Brexit referendum illuminate the socio-political dynamics that continue to shape its aftermath. For migrant-owned businesses in rural Scotland, the political narratives that fueled Brexit have translated into practical challenges, such as restrictive immigration policies and trade barriers. The emphasis on sovereignty, while politically resonant, has introduced significant disruptions to the economic and social networks that underpin rural resilience. This section sets the stage for subsequent discussions of how these disruptions manifest in specific sectors and communities, particularly those reliant on migrant entrepreneurship.

Post-Referendum Phase and Implementation of Brexit

The post-referendum phase of Brexit was marked by intense political and economic negotiations, underscoring the complexity of disentangling the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU). This period provides critical context for understanding the operational, legal, and social challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs, particularly in rural Scotland. Following the invocation of Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty in March 2017, the UK initiated a series of negotiations with the EU, culminating in the Withdrawal Agreement of January 2020. This agreement addressed critical issues such as financial settlements, citizens' rights, and the Irish border (Russell, 2018). However, the agreement's inability to fully resolve trade and immigration policies created enduring uncertainties that disproportionately impacted rural economies and migrant-owned businesses. The transition period, which ended on 31 December 2020, highlighted the fragility of rural industries dependent on EU markets and labour mobility. The Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) established a framework for future UK-EU relations but introduced barriers that reshaped cross-border trade and compliance processes. These barriers significantly impacted industries like agriculture, fishing, and tourism in rural Scotland, where EU integration had been instrumental in sustaining economic activities. For instance, exporters of agricultural goods and seafood faced delays and additional costs due to new customs checks and compliance requirements (Springford, 2021). Migrant entrepreneurs, particularly those in the seafood sector in Aberdeenshire, reported declining profitability and market access, revealing the disproportionate vulnerabilities of businesses reliant on international markets (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022).

The termination of free movement under the Brexit framework further exacerbated labour shortages in rural Scotland, where industries like agriculture and hospitality heavily depend on seasonal and skilled EU workers. Immigration restrictions introduced under the EU Settlement Scheme created bureaucratic hurdles for hiring migrant workers, disrupting long-established labour networks. Seasonal farm operators and hospitality businesses, many of which are migrant-owned, experienced operational inefficiencies and rising costs due to an inability to fill essential roles (Botterill, McCollum & Tyrrell, 2019). This reduction in workforce availability has strained rural economies, amplifying the challenges posed by geographic isolation and demographic shifts (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). The Irish border emerged as a particularly contentious issue during the Brexit negotiations, reflecting the geopolitical complexities of the UK's withdrawal. The Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland aimed to avoid a hard border on the island of Ireland while ensuring regulatory alignment with the EU. However, the implementation of this protocol has created trade frictions, especially for businesses reliant on cross-border supply chains (Hobolt & Tilley, 2022). Although this issue is geographically distant from Scotland, it highlights the interconnectedness of rural economies within the UK and the broader EU context. The disruptions experienced in Northern Ireland parallel those in Scotland, where rural businesses have similarly struggled to navigate post-Brexit trade arrangements.

Beyond economic and logistical challenges, Brexit's implementation phase has intensified socio-political tensions in rural Scotland. Migrant communities, who have historically been integral to the region’s economy, have reported heightened experiences of xenophobia and discrimination, amplified by the rhetoric of "taking back control" (Rzepnikowska, 2022). These narratives have contributed to a sense of exclusion among migrants, undermining their ability to integrate into local communities. Migrant entrepreneurs, in particular, face a dual burden: navigating the operational uncertainties of Brexit while addressing socio-cultural barriers that hinder their economic and social participation. This period underscores the inadequacy of policy measures designed to address the complexities of Brexit. Initiatives like the SME Brexit Support Fund have provided some financial relief but fall short of addressing the structural challenges faced by rural migrant entrepreneurs. The bureaucratic complexity of these programs, combined with limited outreach in rural areas, has rendered them inaccessible to many (Markova, Parenti & Chowdhury, 2022). These gaps highlight the disconnect between policy frameworks and the lived realities of those most affected by Brexit-induced disruptions.

The Role of Gender in Migrant Entrepreneurship in Rural Scotland

The interplay between gender and migration is an understudied yet critical dimension of migrant entrepreneurship, particularly in the context of rural Scotland post-Brexit. Women migrant entrepreneurs, in particular, experience a unique intersection of challenges and opportunities shaped by their gender, migration status, and the socio-political and economic conditions of their host communities. While their entrepreneurial activities contribute significantly to local economies, they often face systemic barriers and cultural expectations that influence their experiences and outcomes (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020).

Rural Scotland, characterized by its demographic sparsity and economic reliance on traditional industries, presents distinct challenges for women migrant entrepreneurs. Unlike urban centers, where women migrants may benefit from more robust networks and infrastructure, rural settings often lack tailored support services, such as childcare facilities or women-focused business mentorship programs. This limited access to resources constrains women’s ability to engage fully in entrepreneurial activities while managing familial and domestic responsibilities (Smith & Mavroudi, 2016). The post-Brexit immigration environment has exacerbated these challenges by imposing additional layers of bureaucracy and uncertainty. For women migrants, who may already navigate gendered expectations and limited mobility due to caregiving roles, these changes can act as significant barriers to entry or growth in entrepreneurship. For instance, women running agricultural businesses in rural Scotland have reported difficulties accessing seasonal labour due to stricter visa requirements, which places additional burdens on their operations and competitiveness (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). Women migrant entrepreneurs’ experiences are further complicated by the intersection of gender with class and migration status. EU migrant women, particularly from Eastern Europe, often face stereotypes that frame them as low-skilled or as caregivers, which can undermine their entrepreneurial credibility. These stereotypes are perpetuated by both community narratives and institutional biases, limiting their access to funding, networks, and leadership opportunities (Rzepnikowska, 2019). Non-EU women migrants, meanwhile, encounter compounded discrimination rooted in racialized gender norms, which positions them as perpetual outsiders regardless of their entrepreneurial contributions (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). Cultural attitudes within rural communities also shape women’s entrepreneurial experiences. In many cases, women migrant entrepreneurs are expected to conform to traditional gender roles, which can constrain their ability to assert themselves as business leaders. This is particularly evident in male-dominated sectors such as agriculture or construction, where women face additional scrutiny and resistance to their entrepreneurial endeavors (De Lima & Mine, 2021). Despite these challenges, many women migrants navigate these constraints by leveraging informal networks and adopting innovative business models that balance economic activities with domestic responsibilities. Despite the structural and cultural barriers, they face, women migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland demonstrate remarkable resilience and adaptability. Many have diversified their businesses to include products and services that cater to niche local markets or address emerging consumer needs. For instance, women in the hospitality sector have developed eco-friendly and family-focused accommodations, leveraging Scotland’s natural and cultural heritage to attract domestic and international tourists (Markova, Parenti & Chowdhury, 2022). The adoption of digital tools has also been pivotal for women migrant entrepreneurs. E-commerce platforms, social media marketing, and remote work technologies enable them to expand their customer base beyond local markets while managing their caregiving roles. These innovations underscore the entrepreneurial creativity of women migrants and their capacity to adapt to the constraints of rural economies (Wright, Roper & Hart, 2020). Current policy frameworks often fail to account for the unique challenges faced by women migrant entrepreneurs. While initiatives such as the SME Brexit Support Fund aim to provide financial assistance to all entrepreneurs, they rarely include gender-sensitive measures that address the specific needs of women. For instance, policies could incorporate funding for childcare services or mentorship programs that connect women entrepreneurs with female role models in their sectors. Additionally, anti-discrimination measures must be strengthened to address both gendered and racialized biases in funding allocation, leadership opportunities, and community integration (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020).

Collaborative community programs that focus on women’s empowerment can also play a critical role in fostering inclusivity and resilience. Cultural exchange initiatives, business networking events, and leadership training programs tailored for women migrant entrepreneurs can help bridge gaps in access to resources and support. Such interventions not only enhance economic resilience but also promote gender equality and social cohesion in rural Scotland. The inclusion of gender as an analytical lens enriches the theoretical frameworks of this study, particularly by integrating intersectionality and feminist approaches to migration and entrepreneurship. Intersectionality highlights how overlapping axes of discrimination-such as gender, race, and class-shape the lived experiences of women migrant entrepreneurs, offering a more nuanced understanding of their challenges and contributions (Yuval-Davis, 2011).

Political Impact of Brexit on Migrant Entrepreneurs in Rural Scotland: Inclusion and Exclusion in Policy-Making

Brexit’s political ramifications have profoundly reshaped the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, as policy decisions at both the UK and Scottish levels influence their socio-economic participation. While the Scottish Government has attempted to position itself as more inclusive compared to Westminster’s restrictive policies, a closer examination reveals contradictions between its inclusivity rhetoric and the systemic barriers faced by migrant entrepreneurs. These political dynamics highlight the interplay between inclusionary and exclusionary practices, particularly as they affect legal frameworks, immigration policies, and public narratives. The EU Settlement Scheme, introduced to manage the residency rights of EU nationals post-Brexit, has imposed significant legal and administrative challenges on migrant entrepreneurs. Many reports confusion and delays in navigating the scheme, exacerbating anxieties about their long-term residency and operational stability. This is particularly evident among Polish and Romanian entrepreneurs, who rely heavily on seasonal labour and cross-border trade networks. The abrupt withdrawal of free movement has disrupted these networks, leading to labour shortages and increased operational costs in agriculture and hospitality (Markova, Parenti & Chowdhury, 2022; Rzepnikowska, 2019). These administrative complexities not only hinder business continuity but also create emotional burdens, undermining the resilience of migrant-owned enterprises. Non-EU migrants, by contrast, contend with longstanding systemic barriers embedded in restrictive immigration frameworks. High visa costs, limited settlement pathways, and exclusion from public funding have historically marginalized non-EU entrepreneurs. Brexit has further amplified these challenges, as public discourse increasingly centers on EU migrants, often sidelining the experiences of non-EU nationals (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). This dichotomy underscores a hierarchy of belonging, where non-EU migrants are positioned as perpetual outsiders regardless of their economic contributions. Community-level exclusion adds another layer of complexity. While some rural communities recognize the economic importance of migrant-owned businesses, others perpetuate exclusionary attitudes shaped by Brexit-induced anti-immigration rhetoric. Migrants frequently report xenophobia, microaggressions, and difficulties in accessing local networks, all of which limit their ability to secure partnerships or leadership roles in local governance (Rzepnikowska, 2019). For instance, Romanian entrepreneurs have shared experiences of being excluded from community initiatives despite their contributions to local economies (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). This exclusion is even more pronounced for non-EU migrants, who face compounded discrimination rooted in racial biases and systemic inequalities (Scottish Government, 2021).

Despite these challenges, the Scottish Government has introduced policies aimed at mitigating Brexit’s impacts, such as the SME Brexit Support Fund and regional development grants. These initiatives provide financial assistance and regulatory guidance to help businesses adapt to new market conditions. However, their implementation has been uneven. Bureaucratic hurdles and limited outreach often render these programs inaccessible to many migrant entrepreneurs, particularly those in rural areas where resources are already constrained (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020). These gaps highlight the disconnect between policy design and grassroots realities, raising questions about the inclusivity and effectiveness of these interventions. Moreover, the framing of Scottish Government policies often commodifies migrants, emphasizing their economic utility while neglecting broader issues of social inclusion. For example, programs such as Rural Scotland Key Facts focus on migrants’ contributions to addressing labour shortages but fail to address the structural barriers that limit their full integration into rural communities (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). This economic framing risks perpetuating a transactional relationship between migrants and their host communities, where migrants are valued primarily for their labour rather than as integral members of society. Brexit’s impact on personal and family dynamics further underscores the inadequacy of existing policies. Restrictive immigration rules complicate family reunification, creating emotional and logistical challenges for migrant entrepreneurs. These stresses not only affect individual well-being but also undermine entrepreneurial innovation and productivity, as migrants struggle to balance personal anxieties with business demands (Luthra et al., 2021). This intersection of personal and professional challenges highlights the need for policies that account for migrants’ holistic experiences rather than narrowly focusing on economic outcomes. The intersectional dimensions of exclusion faced by migrant entrepreneurs demand a more nuanced policy response. Gender, race, and class intersect to create varying levels of vulnerability, with women and racialized migrants often experiencing heightened discrimination and reduced access to resources (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). Addressing these inequalities requires a shift from a one-size-fits-all approach to a more tailored framework that recognizes the diverse needs and experiences of migrant entrepreneurs.

Inclusive and ‘Welcoming’ Policies: Unintended Exploitation and Exclusion in Scottish Government Approaches

The Scottish Government has adopted a progressive and inclusive narrative in its response to Brexit, positioning itself as distinct from the UK Government's more restrictive stance. This narrative emphasizes Scotland as a "welcoming nation," with policies designed to attract and support migrants, particularly in rural areas. However, this inclusivity rhetoric often obscures systemic challenges, creating unintended consequences that are exploitative and exclusionary. These contradictions highlight the tension between policy ideals and their practical outcomes, particularly in the context of migrant entrepreneurship in rural Scotland. The Scottish Government’s inclusivity rhetoric focuses on migrants as essential contributors to the economy, particularly in sectors like agriculture, tourism, and hospitality, which are vital to rural Scotland's resilience. Programs such as the Rural Tourism Infrastructure Fund and the SME Brexit Support Fund are framed as tools to empower migrant entrepreneurs to navigate Brexit-related disruptions. However, this framing often commodifies migrants, reducing them to their economic roles rather than recognizing their holistic contributions to rural communities (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020; Scottish Government, 2021). For instance, Polish and Romanian entrepreneurs report feeling valued primarily for their labour, particularly in addressing workforce shortages in agriculture and hospitality. This utilitarian perspective neglects their broader social and cultural roles, limiting their ability to integrate meaningfully into host communities (Markova, Reilly & de Lima, 2022). The transactional nature of these relationships undermines the inclusive ethos by framing migrants as temporary solutions rather than integral members of society. The focus on migrants as economic assets has led to exploitative practices, particularly in labour-intensive industries. The withdrawal of free movement and the introduction of the EU Settlement Scheme have created legal and administrative challenges for EU migrants. Seasonal workers, who are critical to agriculture and hospitality, face heightened vulnerabilities under restrictive visa regimes, which often leave them with limited bargaining power and precarious working conditions (Benedi Lahuerta & Iusmen, 2020; Rzepnikowska, 2019). Non-EU migrants face even greater systemic barriers, including high visa costs, limited access to settlement pathways, and exclusion from public funding mechanisms. For instance, non-EU entrepreneurs in agriculture often encounter difficulties accessing grants and financial resources, further marginalizing their contributions to rural economies (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). These systemic exclusions expose the exploitative dimensions of migration policies, which prioritize economic utility over equitable access to resources. The implementation of Scottish Government policies often reinforces exclusion through bureaucratic complexities and limited accessibility. Programs like the SME Brexit Support Fund are hindered by eligibility criteria, language barriers, and geographic disparities, which disproportionately affect rural migrant entrepreneurs. Many migrants report difficulties in navigating these systems, particularly those operating small and medium-sized enterprises in remote areas (Markova, Parenti & Chowdhury, 2022; Cairney & McGarvey, 2020).

This exclusionary dynamic is compounded by the focus on short-term economic goals, which overlooks the structural barriers that limit long-term integration. Issues such as affordable housing, digital connectivity, and access to education are often sidelined in policy discourse, despite their centrality to fostering a sense of belonging and stability for migrant entrepreneurs (Scottish Government, 2021). The exclusionary effects of Scottish migration policies are exacerbated by intersectional factors, including race, gender, and class. Women migrants often face additional challenges, such as limited access to childcare and systemic biases in funding opportunities. Racialized migrants, particularly non-EU nationals, experience compounded discrimination that intersects with structural barriers, further marginalizing their social and economic participation (Virdee & McGeever, 2018; De Lima & Mine, 2021). For example, women entrepreneurs in rural Scotland report difficulties balancing business demands with familial responsibilities, a challenge compounded by cultural biases and limited institutional support. Similarly, non-EU migrants encounter discriminatory practices in accessing financial resources and leadership roles, which restrict their ability to scale their businesses and integrate into local economies (Scottish Government, 2021; Benson, 2020). These intersectional exclusions highlight the need for tailored interventions that address the diverse realities of migrant entrepreneurs. The gap between the Scottish Government’s inclusivity rhetoric and the lived experiences of migrants reflects a broader disconnect in policy design and implementation. While policies such as Rural Scotland Key Facts emphasize the economic contributions of migrants, they often fail to address the structural inequalities that hinder their integration. This misalignment perpetuates exclusionary dynamics, where migrants are valued for their economic productivity but denied access to meaningful opportunities for social and cultural inclusion (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020). For instance, Romanian entrepreneurs have shared experiences of exclusion from community initiatives, despite their significant contributions to local economies. Similarly, non-EU migrants frequently report being sidelined in policy discussions, limiting their representation and agency in shaping the frameworks that affect their lives (Markova, Parenti & Chowdhury, 2022). These dynamics underscore the need for more participatory approaches to policy-making that center migrant voices. Addressing the exploitative and exclusionary dimensions of Scottish migration policies requires a fundamental shift in policy design and implementation. Key recommendations include: Policies must go beyond economic outcomes to address migrants’ broader social, cultural, and emotional needs. This includes integrating long-term pathways for residency, family reunification, and community-building initiatives. Streamlining administrative processes and providing multilingual support can enhance accessibility for migrant entrepreneurs, particularly in rural areas. Localized advisory services and digital platforms can help bridge the gap between policy intentions and grassroots realities (Cairney & McGarvey, 2020). Recognizing the diverse experiences of migrants requires tailored support mechanisms that address the specific challenges faced by women, racialized groups, and low-income entrepreneurs. Anti-discrimination measures and targeted outreach can help dismantle systemic barriers (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). Including migrant entrepreneurs in policy discussions can ensure that interventions align with their needs and aspirations. Establishing advisory boards with diverse representation can help create more inclusive and effective policies (De Lima & Mine, 2021; Markova, 2022). The literature on Brexit has highlighted its far-reaching consequences for migrant communities, particularly in rural areas like Scotland. Brexit has had multifaceted impacts, especially for migrant entrepreneurs who have been integral to the sustainability of rural economies. The historical context of Brexit reveals a nation divided on issues of national sovereignty, immigration, and economic stability, where Euroscepticism, fueled by concerns about migration, played a pivotal role (Clarke & Goodwin, 2016; Fetzer & Witte, 2019). The post-referendum phase introduced legal and economic challenges for migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, especially in sectors dependent on EU labour such as agriculture, hospitality, and fishing (Markova et al., 2022; Spring ford, 2021). Moreover, the loss of free movement, compounded by stricter immigration controls, has disrupted labour markets and led to increased operational challenges (Rzepnikowska, 2022; Sampson, 2021). However, the Scottish Government’s inclusive rhetoric contrasts with the practical challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs, often reflecting a policy gap that neglects the social and cultural integration of migrants (De Lima & Krivokapic-Skoko, 2020; Scottish Government, 2021). The inclusion of gender, race, and class in migration studies has become essential for understanding the intersecting challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs, with marginalized groups experiencing compounded forms of discrimination (Virdee & McGeever, 2018; Yuval-Davis, 2011). The findings from the reviewed literature suggest that while migrants have been recognized as economic contributors in rural areas, systemic exclusion remains prevalent, underscoring the need for more holistic and inclusive policy responses that go beyond economic utility (Benson, Jordan & Smith, 2020).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This section outlines the methodological approach undertaken to explore the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities in Scotland. Guided by the principles of Critical Realism, the study employed a mixed-methods research design, integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches to comprehensively address the research objectives. The methodological choices are rooted in the study's commitment to capturing both statistical trends and the nuanced lived experiences of participants. This chapter elaborates on the research philosophy, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, research design, data collection methods, sampling strategies, and data analysis techniques employed in this study. Ethical considerations and limitations are also critically discussed, demonstrating the rigor and transparency of the research process. Through this approach, the study ensures robust insights into the complex dynamics of rural entrepreneurship and community integration post-Brexit.

Research Philosophy: This research is rooted in Critical Realism, supported by interpretivist elements, to explore the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. Critical Realism, as developed by Bhaskar, (1978). and extended in more recent work (Archer, 2020), offers a layered understanding of reality, distinguishing between observable phenomena and the deeper structural mechanisms that produce them. This philosophy is particularly suited to examining how systemic factors, such as Brexit-induced policy shifts and economic disruptions, shape migrants' experiences while also recognizing their agency in navigating these challenges. Critical Realism enables the study to bridge the structural and subjective dimensions of Brexit's impacts, aligning with the study's aim to analyze both the constraints and opportunities faced by migrant entrepreneurs.

The interpretivist dimension complements this by prioritizing the subjective narratives and lived experiences of participants. Interpretivism focuses on understanding how individuals make sense of their social worlds, providing insights into migrants' sense of belonging, identity, and integration in rural Scotland (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Together, Critical Realism and Interpretivism offer a comprehensive philosophical foundation for exploring the interplay between structural forces and individual agency in the context of Brexit.

Theoretical Framework: Social Identity Theory

The theoretical foundation for this research is Social Identity Theory (SIT), formulated by Tajfel &Turner, (1979) which provides a critical framework to analyze the socio-economic, political, and cultural dimensions of Brexit's impact on EU migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. SIT posits that individuals derive their identity and sense of belonging from their group memberships, which influence intergroup dynamics, behaviors, and perceptions. Brexit, as a polarizing socio-political event, has significantly heightened these group-based dynamics, intensifying the categorization of migrants as "out-groups" and rural host communities as "in-groups." This categorization exacerbates xenophobic attitudes and tensions, which are particularly salient in rural Scotland's socially close-knit yet economically precarious environments (Hogg & Abrams, 2020; Haslam, 2021). Brexit has created a divisive narrative that emphasizes exclusionary "othering," positioning migrants as outsiders in rural communities. SIT helps elucidate how such group-based perceptions shape local attitudes, directly influencing the integration of EU migrant entrepreneurs into social and economic networks. Migrants often face stereotypes portraying them as economic threats or cultural outsiders, which can adversely affect their businesses and relationships within host communities (Virdee & McGeever, 2018). Rural host communities, often facing economic precarity, may compare themselves with migrant entrepreneurs in ways that either foster collaboration or provoke exclusionary behaviors. SIT offers a lens to understand these intergroup comparisons, which can determine the level of support or hostility migrant businesses encounter (Keriggan & de Lima, 2009). For instance, Brexit has reinforced fears of resource scarcity, where migrants are perceived as competitors for limited economic opportunities. Migrants frequently form resilient in-group networks to cope with exclusion and systemic barriers. SIT provides a framework to examine how these networks offer emotional, social, and economic support, enabling migrants to navigate the complexities of Brexit-induced disruptions while sustaining their entrepreneurial ventures (Turner et al., 2021). SIT integrates seamlessly with the study’s intersectional approach by highlighting how overlapping identities-such as race, class, and gender-interact with broader social and political dynamics. This helps contextualize the differentiated experiences of migrant entrepreneurs, emphasizing how structural inequalities intersect with local group dynamics to shape identity and belonging (McCollum, 2022). This theory also aligns with the mixed-methods approach of the study. Quantitative data on community attitudes and business performance can be contextualized through the theory’s emphasis on group identity, while qualitative narratives provide rich insights into how migrants perceive and navigate these dynamics. By grounding the study in Critical Realism and Social Identity Theory, this research provides a robust framework for analyzing Brexit’s complex impacts on EU migrant entrepreneurs. The conceptual framework operationalizes these theoretical insights into actionable dimensions, ensuring a comprehensive exploration of economic, social, and political challenges. Together, these elements underpin a nuanced analysis of how Brexit reshapes the lived experiences and adaptive strategies of migrants in rural Scotland, contributing valuable insights to the fields of migration studies, rural sociology, and political economy.

Research Design

The research design of this study adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods to comprehensively explore the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and their interactions with host rural communities in Scotland. This design aligns with the study's aim to capture the multifaceted nature of Brexit's impacts, integrating statistical trends with rich, contextual narratives to provide a holistic understanding of the research problem. The mixed-methods approach was chosen to leverage the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research, enabling methodological triangulation to enhance the validity and reliability of findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The quantitative component focuses on gathering structured data from questionnaires to identify patterns and trends in the experiences of migrant entrepreneurs and host communities. The qualitative component includes focus groups providing depth and context to the statistical insights by exploring individual and group experiences in detail. The quantitative aspect of this study involved administering structured questionnaires to 280 participants, comprising 120 EU migrant entrepreneurs and 160 host community members and stakeholders. The questionnaires collected data on demographic characteristics, perceptions of Brexit's economic and social impacts, and access to public services. By employing structured questionnaires, the study ensured that data were systematically gathered, allowing for descriptive statistical analysis to identify trends and correlations across the sample (Bryman, 2016). The design facilitated comparisons between different demographic and stakeholder groups, shedding light on divergent perceptions of Brexit's impacts. Although the study's sampling methods (purposive and snowball sampling) limited generalizability, the quantitative design emphasized transferability by focusing on localized contexts and providing detailed accounts of rural Scotland’s socio-economic conditions (Nowell, 2017). The qualitative component of the research included focus groups, which were instrumental in capturing the lived experiences of participants. Six focus groups were conducted across three rural regions-Aberdeenshire, Shetland Islands, and Argyll & Bute-ensuring representation from diverse geographical and socio-economic contexts. These discussions explored themes such as community integration, economic challenges, and government support. Separate focus groups for migrant entrepreneurs and host communities were conducted to foster open dialogue and minimize potential conflicts (Tracy, 2020). The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods was guided by a clear methodological framework, ensuring coherence between data sources. Quantitative findings provided a broad overview of Brexit’s impacts, while qualitative data offered deeper insights into the experiences underlying these patterns. For example, statistical trends related to economic challenges were contextualized by qualitative themes such as “navigating policy changes” and “building community networks. “This complementarity between methods strengthened the study’s overall validity and enriched its conclusions (Fetters et al., 2013). The mixed-methods design was selected to address the complex and layered nature of the research questions, which necessitate both breadth and depth of analysis. While the quantitative component identifies overarching patterns, the qualitative component ensures that individual and community voices are not lost in statistical generalizations. This design aligns with the philosophical foundation of Critical Realism, which emphasizes the interplay between structural mechanisms and individual agency (Archer, 2020). By combining methods, the research captures the multifaceted impacts of Brexit, providing insights into both systemic dynamics and personal experiences. While the mixed-methods approach offers significant strengths, it also presents challenges, particularly in the integration of diverse data types. To address this, the study employed NVivo software for qualitative analysis and systematically aligned qualitative themes with quantitative trends during the data synthesis process. Additionally, potential biases in qualitative data were mitigated through reflexive practices and peer debriefing, ensuring that the findings remained grounded in participants' narratives (Tracy, 2020). The research design combines the strengths of quantitative and qualitative methods, providing a robust framework for exploring the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs. By integrating structured statistical analysis with rich contextual narratives, the study offers a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between systemic factors and individual agency in rural Scotland. This mixed-methods approach ensures that the findings are both comprehensive and credible, contributing valuable insights to migration studies, rural sociology, and political economy.

Discussion of Data Collection Timeframe and Pilot Study

The data collection process for this study was conducted over a period of 24 months, from January 2021 to December 2022, with dedicated timeframes for each method. The questionnaire phase spanned approximately six weeks, following a two-week pilot study to refine the instrument. This allowed for efficient distribution and collection of responses across online and in-person modalities, ensuring inclusivity and broad coverage of the target population. The focus group discussions were conducted over a period of three months, with sessions scheduled flexibly to accommodate participant availability and regional accessibility. This structured timeline ensured that both quantitative and qualitative data were collected systematically, enabling a comprehensive exploration of the socio-economic impacts of Brexit on rural communities and migrant entrepreneurs. Before the main data collection phase, a pilot study was conducted to assess the clarity, relevance, and effectiveness of the data collection instruments. A small group of participants, representative of the target population, will be invited to provide feedback on the questionnaires and participate in a mock focus group session. Their feedback and input will be crucial in refining the instruments and ensuring they capture the intended research objectives (Bryman, 2016). Pilot testing allowed for the identification of any potential issues or challenges with the instruments, such as confusing or ambiguous questions, which could affect the quality of the data collected. By administering the instruments to a small sample of participants similar to the intended study population, valuable feedback was obtained to refine and improve the instruments, thereby increasing their reliability and validity for the main data collection (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The pilot testing phase ensured that the data collected would be of high quality and aligned with the research objectives, enhancing the overall trustworthiness of the study.

Overview of Data Collection Method

The research employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating Questionnaires, focus groups, and case studies to comprehensively investigate the impact of Brexit on migrant-owned businesses and host communities in rural Scotland. This approach allowed for a nuanced exploration of both measurable outcomes and lived experiences, ensuring a holistic understanding of the research questions.

Questionnaires

In this research study, questionnaires are employed as the primary data collection method to explore the impact of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities in Scotland. This method is particularly suited to the study’s objectives, as it enables the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data from a large, geographically dispersed population while ensuring methodological rigor and inclusivity. The rural context of this study involves participants spread across 10 regions in Scotland, including, including Aberdeenshire, Eilean Siar, Shetland Islands, Argyll & Bute, Angus, Orkney Islands, Highland, Perth Kinros Dumfries & Galloway and Scottish Borders.

Administering questionnaires via the online platform Qualtrics allowed the study to overcome logistical challenges associated with face-to-face data collection in remote and very remote areas, as classified by the Scottish Government’s Urban/Rural Classification (2018). This method enabled broad participation and ensured that the voices of individuals from diverse geographic locations were included (Saunders et al., 2019). By reaching a larger sample size of 280 participants, including 120 EU migrant entrepreneurs and 160 host rural residents and public or third-party stakeholders, the study achieved representativeness and enhanced the generalizability of its findings. Given the sensitive nature of the research topic-such as experiences of discrimination, policy challenges, and economic impacts of Brexit-questionnaires offered a means of ensuring participant anonymity. Anonymity encouraged respondents to share honest and candid insights without fear of judgment or repercussions. This approach reduced social desirability bias, which is common in migration research, and improved the reliability and validity of the data collected (Groves et al., 2011; Hennink et al., 2020). The questionnaire was designed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data, aligning with the mixed-methods approach of this research. Closed-ended questions provided standardized quantitative data, enabling statistical analysis of demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, and country of origin) and perceptions of Brexit’s economic and social impacts. These structured responses allowed for identifying patterns, trends, and comparisons between different respondent groups, such as migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Simultaneously, open-ended questions enriched the dataset with qualitative insights, allowing participants to articulate their experiences and perspectives in their own words. This approach complemented data from focus groups and case studies by capturing additional narratives from individuals who could not participate in these methods due to logistical constraints or personal preferences. Open-ended responses provided a deeper understanding of complex and context-specific issues, such as community integration and business challenges, that are not easily captured through closed-ended questions alone (Flick, 2021; Morgan et al., 2022). To ensure inclusivity and accessibility, the questionnaire administered through Qualtrics allowed participants to complete it in 5 preferred languages (e.g., English, Polish, Romanian, Czech, Bulgarian, and Latvian) reflecting the linguistic diversity of EU migrants in Scotland. This strategy reduced language barriers, increased response rates, and ensured that participants could express their perspectives authentically, aligning with ethical considerations for inclusive research in migration studies (Van de Vijver & Leung, 2020). Questionnaires provided a cost-effective and time-efficient means of collecting data from a large and dispersed population within a limited timeframe. The online distribution via Qualtrics further reduced logistical and financial burdens while ensuring the timely collection of data required for the study (Bryman, 2021). The questionnaire included a combination of closed-ended and open-ended questions to balance breadth and depth in data collection. Quantitative data from the closed-ended questions were analyzed using SPSS, facilitating statistical comparisons and identifying patterns related to Brexit’s impacts. Qualitative data from the open-ended questions were analyzed thematically using NVivo, providing detailed narratives that complemented insights from the focus groups and case studies. By integrating questionnaires as the primary data collection method, this study achieved a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities (Table 1). This method’s strengths in efficiency, inclusivity, and mixed-methods alignment made it a critical tool for addressing the research questions and ensuring robust and reliable findings.

Focus Groups

Total Six focus groups were conducted in three selected rural regions-Aberdeenshire, Shetland Islands, and Argyll & Bute/Angus-to gather qualitative data. These regions were chosen due to their high vulnerability to the socio-economic consequences of Brexit and their diverse demographic compositions. The focus groups were divided into two categories to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research questions. Three focus groups were conducted exclusively with EU migrant entrepreneurs, focusing on their lived experiences, business challenges, and perceptions of community integration post-Brexit. The remaining three focus groups involved a mix of host rural residents and public or third-party stakeholders, including local council officers, social enterprise representatives, and community leaders. Each focus group comprised 6-8 participants who gave consent to participate in Focus group whilst collecting data through Questionnaires. The division of focus groups into these categories was deliberate to avoid potential conflict or inhibition during discussions, particularly when addressing sensitive topics such as xenophobia, economic inclusion, and policy impacts. The interactive nature of these discussions encouraged participants to share their perspectives, challenge assumptions, and reflect on shared experiences, fostering a dynamic exploration of the communal and individual impacts of Brexit. I chose this method firstly, focus group provide an opportunity to capture the nuanced experiences, interpretations, and insights of the participants. Through interactive discussions, participants can share their thoughts, exchange ideas, and build upon each other's responses, leading to a deeper understanding of the research topic (Morgan, 2014). Secondly, focus groups allow for the exploration of group dynamics and social interactions (Kitzinger, 1995). By bringing together a group of migrant entrepreneurs, rural residents, and public third-party stakeholders, the focus groups create a space for dialogue and the sharing of diverse perspectives. Participants can provide different viewpoints, challenge assumptions, and offer insights that may not emerge through individual interviews. The interactive nature of focus groups encourages participants to engage in rich discussions and share their experiences, generating a wealth of qualitative data. Additionally, focus groups provide an opportunity to explore the shared experiences and common challenges faced by the participants (Krueger & Casey, 2015).

Discussion of the Sampling Methods

The sampling strategy for this research was designed to ensure a diverse and representative sample, addressing the complexities of studying the socio-economic impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. A combination of stratified, purposive, and snowball sampling methods was employed to capture the experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs, host communities, and public/third-sector stakeholders. Each method was chosen for its ability to address specific challenges associated with the study population and rural contexts, ensuring a comprehensive and robust approach to data collection.

Stratified sampling was used to ensure proportional representation across Scotland’s varied rural landscapes, guided by the Scottish Government’s eight-fold Urban/Rural classification (2009-2010). This classification stratifies rural areas into accessible, remote, and very remote regions based on population density and proximity to settlements with over 10,000 residents. By dividing the population into these three strata, the study systematically accounted for regional disparities and contextual nuances, enabling a thorough exploration of entrepreneurial activity across different geographical contexts. Ten rural areas were selected from these strata based on their high rural population percentages, ensuring that the study reflected Scotland’s socio-economic diversity. Stratified sampling, for instance, relies on predefined strata, which can oversimplify the complex and fluid nature of rural socio-economic contexts. To address this, the study incorporated qualitative contextual analysis within each stratum, ensuring that localized nuances were captured alongside statistical representation (Liu et al., 2023). Within each selected rural area, purposive sampling was employed to recruit participants who could provide meaningful insights aligned with the research objectives. This non-probability sampling technique was particularly effective for targeting individuals with direct relevance to the study, including EU migrant entrepreneurs, rural residents, and public/third-sector stakeholders. Participants were deliberately selected based on their roles and experiences, such as involvement in local businesses, governance, or community associations, ensuring that the data collected was rich and directly applicable to the research questions. Purposive sampling, though effective in targeting relevant participants, carries the risk of researcher bias in selection. This was mitigated by employing transparent and predefined inclusion criteria to guide recruitment, ensuring a systematic and unbiased approach. This approach is widely recognized in migration and rural studies, where the inclusion of information-rich cases enhances the depth and relevance of findings (Etikan et al., 2020). To reach hard-to-access populations, such as EU migrant entrepreneurs operating in very remote areas, snowball sampling was employed. This method relies on participant referrals to recruit additional individuals, leveraging social and professional networks to access hidden populations. Snowball sampling was particularly effective for overcoming the logistical challenges of recruiting participants in geographically isolated areas, where traditional recruitment methods may fail. This approach ensured the inclusion of migrant entrepreneurs who might otherwise have been excluded due to social or geographical isolation, enriching the dataset with perspectives from remote regions. Snowball sampling’s reliance on participant networks can lead to overrepresentation of certain groups, introducing the risk of network homogeneity. To minimize this, initial recruitment was diversified across multiple networks, ensuring broader representation (Higginbottom et al., 2021). The integration of stratified, purposive, and snowball sampling provided a balanced and context-sensitive approach to data collection, addressing the challenges of participant recruitment in rural Scotland. Stratified sampling offered structural representation across different rural contexts, purposive sampling focused on information-rich cases, and snowball sampling facilitated access to marginalized populations. This combined approach enhanced the reliability and validity of the findings, supporting a nuanced exploration of Brexit’s impacts on rural entrepreneurship. Recent literature emphasizes the importance of such mixed-method strategies in capturing complex phenomena in geographically dispersed contexts, validating this study’s approach (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Flick, 2018; Liu et al., 2023). By combining these methods, the sampling strategy not only ensured representativeness and diversity but also addressed practical constraints such as time, budget, and participant accessibility. The resulting data provided both quantitative breadth and qualitative depth, enabling a comprehensive understanding of how Brexit has shaped entrepreneurial activity and community dynamics in rural Scotland.

Contextual Overview of Rural Locales

To explore the experiences and challenges of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland, it is essential to contextualize the socio-economic, demographic, and entrepreneurial landscapes of the regions under study. Rural Scotland is characterized by significant diversity, with economic structures ranging from agriculture and tourism to renewable energy and artisanal crafts. Population trends, such as growth in accessible rural areas and stagnation or decline in remote regions, further shape the entrepreneurial opportunities and constraints in these locales. Drawing on the Scottish Government's Urban/Rural Classification (2009-2010), this research examines ten rural locales that represent accessible, remote, and very remote rural areas. This classification provides a systematic framework for capturing the unique dynamics of each locale. The table below summarizes the economic characteristics, population and demographic trends, and entrepreneurial opportunities of these locales. The data is drawn from government reports, regional development studies, and academic literature to provide a comprehensive overview of the regional contexts in which migrant entrepreneurs operate this contextualization not only informs the research but also highlights the interplay between geography, economic structures, and socio-cultural factors in shaping entrepreneurial activity, particularly in the post-Brexit environment (Table 2).

Sample Size

Sample size for this research was carefully designed to ensure methodological rigor while addressing the research objectives, practical constraints, and the complexity of studying rural migrant entrepreneurship in Scotland post-Brexit. The study involved a total of 156 participants, integrating data from 115 respondents who completed structured questionnaires and 41 participants across six focus groups. This mixed-methods approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic impacts of Brexit on migrant-owned businesses and host communities in rural areas, aligning with best practices in migration studies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Structured questionnaires were administered to 280 participants, including 120 EU migrant entrepreneurs and 160 host rural residents and public/third-sector stakeholders. Of the 200 responses received, 115 were fully valid for analysis. The questionnaire captured demographic variables, such as age, gender, and country of origin, alongside perceptions of Brexit’s economic and social impacts. This large sample enabled robust statistical analysis, enhancing the reliability and generalizability of the findings. By incorporating data from both migrant entrepreneurs and host community members, the research ensured a balanced exploration of how Brexit has shaped rural socio-economic dynamics. The inclusion of multiple stakeholder groups within the questionnaire design reflects contemporary recommendations for enhancing the validity of mixed-methods research through diverse participant representation (Flick, 2022). The focus groups provided qualitative insights to complement the quantitative data. Six focus groups, each comprising 6-8 participants, were conducted across three rural regions: Aberdeenshire, Shetland Islands, and Argyll & Bute/Angus. These regions were strategically selected to represent diverse geographical and socio-economic contexts.

Separate focus groups were conducted for migrant entrepreneurs and host community members, ensuring targeted discussions and minimizing potential conflicts. This segmentation enabled in-depth exploration of the lived experiences of participants while facilitating open dialogue tailored to specific group dynamics. The total distribution of focus group participants included 6 participants in the first and fifth groups, 7 participants in the second and third groups, and 8 participants in the fourth and sixth groups. Such distribution ensured adequate representation across diverse rural settings. The choice of this sample size was influenced by several factors. First, the research objectives required diverse representation to explore the experiences and perspectives of migrant entrepreneurs, host communities, and public/third-party stakeholders comprehensively (Smith & Johnson, 2021). Participants were selected purposively, based on their relevance to the research objectives and their willingness to share firsthand insights. This purposive selection ensured the inclusion of individuals with direct involvement in or knowledge of the phenomenon under investigation (Smith & Jones, 2020). Second, the characteristics of the rural target population in Scotland necessitated the inclusion of multiple regions to capture socio-economic and demographic variability. The representation of accessible, remote, and very remote rural contexts provided a robust framework for understanding regional differences (Scottish Government, 2021). Third, the concept of data saturation was integral to determining the sample size. Data saturation was achieved when additional data collection no longer yielded new themes or insights, ensuring comprehensive coverage of participant perspectives (Guest, Namey, & Mitchell, 2020). Practical constraints, such as time, budget, and accessibility, also influenced the chosen sample size. As a PhD research project, balancing methodological rigor with resource feasibility was critical. The sample size was designed to ensure robust data collection and analysis within the scope of the study’s practical limitations (Patton, 2021). Additionally, a review of recent studies in rural entrepreneurship and migration highlighted the suitability of this sample size for achieving research objectives, further validating the approach (Brown, Roberts, & Smith, 2022). The chosen sample size of 156 participants-integrating 115 questionnaire respondents and 41 focus group participants-reflects a thoughtful balance of methodological robustness, diverse representation, and practical feasibility. By capturing data from multiple rural regions and stakeholder groups, this study provides a nuanced and reliable analysis of Brexit’s impact on migrant entrepreneurship and host communities, contributing to the broader literature on rural socio-economic adaptation (Table 3).

Limitations of the Study and Mitigation Strategies

As the researcher, I acknowledge several methodological and contextual limitations encountered in this study, which examined the socio-economic and political impacts of Brexit on EU migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities in Scotland. These limitations, however, were systematically mitigated through a combination of methodological rigor, reflexivity, and transparency. One significant limitation was the lack of statistical generalizability in the quantitative component due to the use of purposive and snowball sampling methods. While these approaches were effective in identifying participants with relevant experiences, they inherently limited the ability to extrapolate findings to broader populations. To address this, I focused on localized contexts and ensured transferability by providing thick contextual descriptions of the rural Scottish settings, socio-economic conditions, and participant demographics (Nowell, 2017). These detailed accounts allow readers and future researchers to assess the applicability of the findings to other rural or socio-economic contexts, compensating for the absence of statistical generalizability. The geographical scope of the study was another limitation, as it concentrated exclusively on rural areas of Scotland, excluding urban regions and other rural settings with potentially different socio-economic dynamics. To mitigate this, I included a diverse range of rural locations, encompassing accessible, remote, and very remote areas. This approach captured variability within the rural context, highlighting distinct challenges and opportunities faced by participants across different levels of rurality. However, future research could expand to urban areas or rural regions outside Scotland to provide broader comparative insights. Temporal constraints posed an additional limitation. The data collection occurred within a specific post-Brexit timeframe, capturing immediate and short-term impacts without accounting for longer-term consequences. To address this, I explicitly framed the findings as an early examination of post-Brexit transitions, situating the insights within the socio-political and economic context of that period (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This temporal framing underscores the need for longitudinal studies to track evolving impacts over time and to build on the foundational insights provided by this research. The subjective nature of thematic analysis presented further challenges. While thematic analysis offered rich interpretive depth, it relied on my judgment, which introduced the possibility of bias. To mitigate this, I employed reflexive practices, such as maintaining a reflexive journal to document assumptions and decisions throughout the analysis process. I also prioritized external validation through peer debriefings and academic supervisory reviews, ensuring that the themes remained grounded in participants’ narratives and minimizing the influence of researcher subjectivity (Tracy, 2020). The integration of mixed methods presented challenges in aligning quantitative and qualitative findings. For example, statistical trends from the questionnaire data needed to be contextualized with thematic insights from focus groups and case studies. To ensure coherence, I adopted a clear methodological framework for integration, allowing quantitative trends, such as economic challenges, to be enriched and contextualized by qualitative themes, such as "adapting to policy changes" (Fetters, 2013). This complementary approach enhanced the depth and validity of the findings. Finally, while the study included host community perspectives, the primary focus on migrant entrepreneurs meant that host community insights were not explored as deeply. To address this, I conducted separate focus groups for host community members and stakeholders, providing an additional layer of insight into integration dynamics. Nonetheless, future research could place greater emphasis on these groups to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the broader socio-political environment. While these limitations highlight the complexities of conducting research in socio-political contexts, I addressed them through mitigation strategies that strengthened the study’s credibility, dependability, and transferability. By integrating reflexivity, triangulation, and thick contextual descriptions, I ensured that the findings remain methodologically rigorous and meaningful. These strategies not only addressed the limitations but also provided a strong foundation for future research on migration, entrepreneurship, and rural community dynamics.

This section has outlined the research methodology employed to investigate the impacts of Brexit on migrant entrepreneurs and host rural communities in Scotland. The study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative research techniques to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. By integrating the strengths of both approaches, the study offers a well-rounded perspective on the socio-economic effects of Brexit. The chapter has also discussed the philosophical foundations, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual structures that guided the research, emphasizing the importance of a robust methodological design. Furthermore, it detailed the data collection and analysis procedures, ensuring the study's methodological rigor and ethical considerations. Acknowledging the limitations of the study, such as sample diversity and potential biases, appropriate mitigation strategies were implemented to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings. This methodological approach establishes a solid foundation for the analysis and discussion that follow, ensuring that the results are credible, relevant, and meaningful within the context of rural Scotland’s post-Brexit challenges (Creswell, 2014; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

This section presents a comprehensive qualitative analysis of the lived experiences of EU migrant entrepreneurs and rural communities in Scotland following Brexit. Drawing from three distinct data sources-open-ended questionnaire responses, focus group discussions, and six in-depth case studies-this chapter aims to uncover the multifaceted impacts of Brexit on entrepreneurial activities, community dynamics, and socio-political relations in rural areas. By employing Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase thematic analysis framework, the chapter identifies and interprets key themes, providing a nuanced understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by this population. Guided by Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989), the analysis investigates how Brexit has reshaped group identity, social inclusion, and entrepreneurial resilience. These theoretical perspectives provide the conceptual grounding to explore the interplay between systemic constraints, community dynamics, and individual agency. The qualitative data in this study were drawn from three complementary sources, carefully chosen to align with the research objectives and provide a nuanced understanding of Brexit’s multifaceted impacts on rural migrant entrepreneurship. Open-ended questionnaire responses provided individualized and reflective insights into personal and business challenges post-Brexit. This method allowed participants to articulate private and nuanced perspectives, particularly useful for exploring sensitive topics that might not emerge in group settings (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Focus group discussions were included for their capacity to foster collective narratives and explore interactive dynamics within community settings, enabling the identification of shared experiences and diverse viewpoints through dialogue (Kitzinger, 1995). Finally, six in-depth case studies were integrated to contextualize systemic challenges within real-world settings, offering vivid illustrations of entrepreneurial resilience and adaptation (Yin, 2014). The triangulation of these three sources ensured a comprehensive and layered analysis, balancing thematic patterns with specific, lived experiences, thus addressing the overarching aim of the study to holistically understand Brexit’s implications for migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland. The data were analyzed using (Braun & Clarke’s, 2006) six-phase framework for thematic analysis. This iterative process included familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report. The analysis was supported by NVivo software, which played a crucial role in identifying patterns, organizing data, and visualizing themes. By enabling systematic coding, NVivo allowed for the organization of raw data into manageable codes and categories, streamlining the thematic analysis process. Additionally, its visualization tools helped create thematic maps and charts that illustrated the relationships between themes, offering a clearer understanding of the interconnected dynamics explored in the study. The analysis adopted a critical realist lens, acknowledging the interplay between observable phenomena (e.g., economic impacts) and the underlying structural mechanisms (e.g., policy changes) that shape them (Bhaskar, 1978). This approach was complemented by interpretivist elements to foreground participants' subjective experiences and narratives (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Thematic analysis for open-ended questions

The thematic analysis of the open-ended questionnaire responses offers an in-depth understanding of the diverse and interconnected impacts of Brexit on rural communities, businesses, and migrant entrepreneurs in Scotland. By examining the responses, three key themes emerged: Economic Challenges and Resilience, Social Dynamics and Belonging, and Political Concerns. The economic challenges revealed by participants highlighted the rising operational costs, labour shortages, and disruptions in supply chains that businesses, particularly those in agriculture and tourism, faced post-Brexit. Socially, Brexit has exacerbated issues of xenophobia, discrimination, and social exclusion, creating a challenging environment for migrant entrepreneurs and communities. Politically, the complexity and ambiguity of government policies have fueled dissatisfaction, contributing to the uncertainty faced by businesses and migrant groups. These themes collectively illustrate the multifaceted effects of Brexit and underscore the need for targeted policies to address these economic, social, and political challenges in rural Scotland. A hierarchical coding tree was developed to visualize the progression from raw data to final themes. This tree demonstrates the relationships between codes, sub-themes, and overarching themes, offering a structured representation of the analysis (Figure 1).

Theme 1: Economic Challenges and Resilience

The economic challenges faced by rural businesses post-Brexit were overwhelmingly highlighted by participants in the study. Increased operational costs, reduced access to financial resources, and labour shortages were among the most prominent issues raised. These challenges particularly affected sectors like agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism, with supply chain disruptions and regulatory changes acting as key constraints. As one participant noted, "Brexit has introduced a myriad of economic challenges, making it difficult for businesses in rural areas to remain competitive." This statement aligns with Sampson, (2021) who observed that rural enterprises are particularly vulnerable to economic disruptions post-Brexit, often facing disproportionate challenges compared to urban businesses. The rise in tariffs and regulatory changes introduced additional financial burdens for businesses. One respondent remarked, “Brexit has made every aspect of running a business more expensive, from imports to compliance with new regulations.” These economic pressures have led to heightened operational difficulties, such as increased paperwork, compliance costs, and delays in trade, especially for businesses that were previously able to operate more freely within the European Union (Sampson, 2021). emphasized the detrimental impact of Brexit on small businesses, particularly in rural areas where access to resources, including skilled labour, has become more restricted. Abor shortages emerged as another critical issue tied to the restriction on the free movement of people post-Brexit. One participant from the agricultural sector shared, “We relied on seasonal workers from the EU, and now we can’t find people to fill those roles.” This concern resonates with the literature that highlights how Brexit has contributed to a significant reduction in the availability of migrant workers, particularly those from the EU, who have traditionally filled low-skilled labour gaps in sectors such as agriculture, hospitality, and construction (Dustmann, 2017). Despite these considerable challenges, many respondents demonstrated resilience by adapting to the changing environment. Some businesses pivoted towards local markets and digital platforms as a way to mitigate the impact of reduced international trade. One entrepreneur shared, "We’ve started focusing on local customers and exploring new digital platforms." This demonstrates the adaptive strategies employed by rural businesses to navigate post-Brexit economic challenges, an idea supported by Smith, (2020) who noted that rural resilience is often driven by the adaptability of local businesses in the face of adversity. Migrant entrepreneurs, in particular, faced distinct challenges related to Brexit. These included reduced access to investment loans, heightened discrimination, and difficulties navigating new immigration policies. A migrant business owner reflected, “The scarcity of seasonal workers has affected productivity and created financial strain,” highlighting the specific challenges faced by businesses reliant on seasonal EU labour. Despite these barriers, migrant entrepreneurs have fostered local job creation and increased social interaction through community engagement initiatives. Smith, (2020) argued that rural resilience is rooted in the social and economic contributions of migrant communities, which, despite facing challenges, play a critical role in sustaining local economies. The theoretical underpinning of this theme draws from resilience theory, which emphasizes the capacity of communities to adapt to and recover from shocks. The economic challenges described in the study align with the concept of economic resilience, particularly in rural areas that are highly dependent on certain industries, such as agriculture and tourism. Resilience theory suggests that rural businesses can endure economic disruptions through diversification and innovation, as demonstrated by the shift towards local markets and digital platforms among participants. Additionally, the concept of "adaptive resilience" (Smith, 2020) is evident in the strategies employed by businesses to counteract the negative impacts of Brexit. By exploring non-EU markets, diversifying their customer base, and fostering local economic ties, rural businesses demonstrate the ability to adapt and persist despite the challenges.

Theme 2: Social Dynamics and Belonging

The social impact of Brexit was another significant theme, particularly in relation to xenophobia, racism, and social isolation. Many respondents highlighted an increase in discriminatory behaviors and exclusionary attitudes post-Brexit, with one participant remarking, "The increase in xenophobic attitudes has eroded our sense of belonging within the community." This finding supports Rzepnikowska's, (2019) research, which documented a rise in xenophobia following the Brexit referendum, particularly among migrant communities. Participants reported experiencing mixed levels of social integration within rural communities. While some felt accepted and supported by their local communities, others reported heightened discrimination and a sense of exclusion. One migrant entrepreneur expressed, “There’s a subtle shift in how people treat us; it’s as though we’re no longer welcome.” These responses align with the findings of Goodwin and Heath, (2016) who argued that economic insecurity often serves as a breeding ground for exclusionary attitudes. The perception of economic competition between migrants and host communities exacerbates these social tensions, as migrant labour is often seen as a threat to local job security, despite evidence suggesting that migrants contribute positively to the economy. Brexit intensified exclusionary attitudes, with some participants experiencing hostility. One respondent stated, “There’s a sense that we’re not wanted anymore, even though we’ve contributed so much to this community.” This observation aligns with Rzepnikowska’s, (2019) study on the rise of xenophobia post-Brexit. Participants noted that social divisions have reduced the willingness of some host community members to engage with migrant-owned businesses, thereby limiting economic growth potential. As Vincent, (2021) argue, social cohesion is a prerequisite for sustainable economic collaboration in rural areas. The increase in xenophobia and discrimination reported by participants highlights the unintended social consequences of Brexit-related policies. Migrant entrepreneurs reported challenges not only in social integration but also in accessing business support services and financial resources. These compounded difficulties underline the broader social and institutional barriers faced by migrants in a post-Brexit context, as well as the persistence of discrimination. This situation was particularly acute in rural areas, where cultural misunderstandings and limited interaction between migrants and the local population created obstacles to social cohesion. Despite these challenges, there were also instances of positive community engagement. One participant remarked, "Local events have been instrumental in building bridges between us and the host community." These positive experiences demonstrate the potential for community-driven initiatives to reduce social divides and foster inclusivity, an idea supported by Vincent et al. (2021), who argue that social cohesion is essential for sustainable rural development. This theme aligns with the social cohesion theory, which emphasizes the importance of mutual trust, respect, and cooperation in maintaining social stability. The rise in xenophobia and the sense of exclusion among migrant entrepreneurs reflects the challenges to social cohesion brought about by Brexit. Furthermore, the literature on migration and integration (Rzepnikowska, 2019; Goodwin & Heath, 2016) highlights the role of public attitudes in shaping the social landscape of post-Brexit communities. Effective integration policies, community engagement, and cultural exchange programs are critical for fostering inclusivity and reducing social tensions in rural areas.

Theme 3: Political Concerns

Political dissatisfaction emerged as a key theme in the analysis, particularly in relation to the complexities and perceived ineffectiveness of Brexit-related policies. Participants criticized the unclear and inconsistent nature of government policies, especially those affecting rural businesses and migrant entrepreneurs. One respondent stated, “The policies are unclear and make it harder to adapt to the new environment.” This frustration with policy complexity echoes (Krasniqi, 2023) critique of Brexit’s bureaucratic fallout, which has created significant barriers for businesses, especially in rural areas, where government support has often been insufficient. Participants highlighted that restrictive immigration policies have led to labor shortages, particularly in agriculture and hospitality. This labor deficit directly impacts economic productivity and financial sustainability in rural businesses. The visa system’s complexity has discouraged skilled EU workers from staying in the UK, leaving businesses unable to fill critical roles, particularly in labor-intensive sectors. As Jones & Martin, (2019) argue, policy clarity and flexibility are critical for rural economies dependent on migrant labor, yet Brexit policies have failed to address these needs. Participants frequently mentioned that Brexit has deepened divisions within rural communities, creating "us versus them" narratives that hinder collaboration and mutual understanding. Example: Migrants reported increased hostility and xenophobia post-Brexit, which they perceive as being legitimized by political rhetoric and policy changes. This aligns with findings from Thomas, (2020) who noted that Brexit has intensified social polarization, making integration efforts more challenging. Brexit has further deepened mistrust within rural communities, affecting collaboration and economic cooperation. One respondent stated: “People are more divided now, and it’s affecting our ability to work together. Participants frequently mentioned the need for more targeted government support, particularly financial incentives and simplified immigration processes, to mitigate the challenges faced by both local and migrant businesses. “Support from the government is vital to help us navigate these challenges. As Jones & Martin, (2019) highlighted, clear and flexible policies are essential to sustaining rural economies that depend on migrant labour. Many participants emphasized the role of the Scottish Government in supporting migrant entrepreneurs and fostering sustainable rural development. One respondent suggested, "Financial incentives and collaborative policies could create opportunities for both local and migrant businesses to thrive. “Participants criticized the lack of targeted government support for rural businesses and migrants. Many respondents felt that national policies failed to address the unique challenges of rural regions. “Policies are designed with urban businesses in mind, leaving us to navigate rural-specific challenges alone,” said one entrepreneur. Post-Brexit regulatory changes were seen as overly complex and inconsistent. “The new visa requirements are a nightmare to navigate,” complained a respondent. These findings echo (Krasniqi, 2023) critique of Brexit’s bureaucratic fallout. This theme aligns with political economy theories that emphasize the role of government policy in shaping economic and social outcomes. Effective governance and policy clarity are essential to addressing the interconnected challenges faced by rural businesses, particularly those reliant on migrant labour. The call for targeted support, such as streamlined immigration policies and financial incentives, highlights the need for policies that address the unique challenges of rural economies and foster social cohesion. This aligns with the findings of Krasniqi, (2023). who argue that Brexit-related policies have failed to provide adequate support for rural businesses, exacerbating the challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs. The themes identified in this analysis-economic challenges, social dynamics, and political concerns are deeply interrelated, with changes in one dimension often influencing the others. Economic pressures, such as rising costs and labor shortages, exacerbate social tensions and reflect policy gaps, while political dissatisfaction fuels community polarization and economic uncertainty. However, opportunities for growth and resilience emerge where these themes intersect positively, such as through inclusive policies and collaborative community efforts.

Thematic Analysis of Focus Group Discussion

The thematic analysis of the focus group discussions sheds light on the multifaceted impacts of Brexit on rural Scotland, with particular focus on the economic, social, and political dimensions. The discussions revealed how Brexit has led to significant challenges for migrant communities, local businesses, and rural economies. The analysis identifies four major themes: Economic Impact of Brexit, Social Consequences of Brexit, Political Impact of Brexit, and Policy Reform Recommendations. These themes explore how Brexit has disrupted business operations, exacerbated social divisions, and introduced new complexities in immigration policy, while also proposing key policy reforms for addressing these challenges. The Economic Impact theme highlights financial crises, labour shortages, and regulatory hurdles that have particularly affected small businesses. The Social Consequences theme delves into the rise of xenophobia and racism, as well as the social exclusion felt by migrant communities. Political Impact focuses on changes in immigration policies and the disconnect between urban-focused policies and rural realities. Lastly, the Policy Reform Recommendations theme emphasizes the need for inclusive, flexible, and coordinated policy interventions to support both local and migrant communities in post-Brexit Scotland. The illustration below visually represents the themes and their sub-themes, illustrating their relationships and how they intersect to affect rural Scotland (Figure 2).

Theme 1: Economic Impact of Brexit

Brexit has had a significant and multifaceted impact on the economy of rural Scotland, as evidenced by the responses of participants in the study. The effects ranged from financial crises to disruptions in business operations and labour shortages. Each of these economic impacts can be traced back to changes brought by the UK's departure from the EU, along with other global challenges, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Below is a detailed analysis of the economic impacts of Brexit, with a focus on the financial crisis, business laws, and employment issues faced by rural businesses.

Sub Theme: Financial Crisis

One of the most consistent findings from the responses was the financial crisis triggered by Brexit, which led to a higher cost of living and inflation. Participants highlighted that the rural areas, already facing higher living costs, were further burdened by Brexit. As one participant noted, "Brexit would be particularly difficult for rural residents, since the cost of living was already perceived to be higher for people living in rural areas. Additional price increase will put them at risk of financial hardship and, for EU nationals, there was a menace that they may even have to consider moving back to the EU." This is consistent with findings from Dustmann, (2017) who emphasized that Brexit would exacerbate financial pressures on rural populations, as the cost of living and consumer prices surged due to the devaluation of the pound and disrupted trade. Participants further noted the devaluation of the pound, which led to higher import costs and negatively affected businesses that relied on foreign goods. Sampson, (2021) highlights those small businesses, especially those dependent on imports, were particularly vulnerable to the depreciation of the pound, which drove up costs and reduced profit margins.

Inflation also worsened, with supply chain disruptions identified as a significant contributing factor. One participant explained, “Disruptions in the supply chain put the business sector on shortage of products which led to a higher demand than production/supply. The financial crisis was experienced by individuals and businesses due to rise in the cost of goods. The decreased cost of money badly affected the economy while reducing the savings.” According to Krasniqi, (2023) inflationary pressures, compounded by Brexit’s impact on the free flow of goods, led to an increase in the cost of essential items, further exacerbating economic strain in rural Scotland. Additionally, many participants noted that the loss of economic power in the UK, particularly in comparison to the EU, was a significant blow. The exit from the Union's free market created uncertainty about trade relationships and contributed to reduced GDP and the loss of foreign policy weight, as businesses struggled with less access to global markets.  One participant reflected, "Seems to me, industries across the UK were not prepared for Brexit. It has affected the economy badly but automotive, airline, pharmaceutical and financial services industries are now likely to suffer the most.” This sentiment aligns with (Goodwin & Heath,2016). who argued that Brexit has weakened the UK's economic standing in the global arena, particularly affecting trade-dependent industries.

Sub Theme: Business Laws and Regulations

Another major impact of Brexit was the change in business laws and regulations, which created significant barriers for rural businesses. Before Brexit, businesses within the EU could operate seamlessly across borders under a common regulatory framework. However, with the UK's exit from the EU, businesses in Scotland faced the challenge of adapting to new business registration requirements, which included changes to trademarks, copyrights, and other legalities that were previously governed by EU law. One participant explained, “It was easier for one to operate business anywhere within the Union under EU laws because it was not subjected to various registrations but after Brexit business sectors/firms in the UK were restricted to transform their trademark, border and copyrights policies to comply with new British rules along with connected charges.” Vincent, (2021) note that the regulatory complexity post-Brexit disproportionately affects smaller firms that lack the infrastructure or resources to handle such changes. The need to adhere to new UK-specific business regulations added to the operating costs and created additional hurdles for businesses trying to stay competitive, particularly in rural areas where resources are limited. Additionally, participants pointed out that Brexit led to the contraction of the EU's free market, which severely impacted trade. As one participant mentioned, “Without a doubt, Brexit badly affected the economy, but the impact of COVID-19 worsened.” This dual impact of Brexit and the COVID-19 pandemic was a significant challenge for many rural businesses, which found it difficult to navigate both the regulatory changes and the disruptions caused by the global health crisis.

Sub theme: Employment Challenges and Labor Shortages

The loss of EU workers was one of the most notable labour-related challenges following Brexit. Participants consistently reported staffing shortages, particularly in sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and hospitality, which have historically relied on migrant labour. One participant noted, “It turned out to be a challenge for Scottish businesses to attract and retain talent with required skills set and salary levels. It is difficult for the business owners to fill vacancies due to general labour shortages and skills gap.” This aligns with the findings of Jones & Martin, (2019) who emphasized that Brexit's immigration policies created labour shortages, particularly in rural areas where there is a heavy reliance on seasonal and low-skilled EU workers. The lack of skilled labour was also a major concern, with many businesses unable to fill critical roles. Krasniqi, (2023) argued that Brexit’s restrictive immigration policies failed to address the labour needs of industries in rural Scotland. One participant stated, “As skilled workforce is integral to the country’s economy, but a sudden shortage of labour was observed post-Brexit because in Scotland, a large number of seasonal workers provide services in a low-cost, specialized field. Consequently, the deficiency of skilled workforce, having potential skills loss in production, ultimately affected the economy.” This highlights the intersection of economic and social impacts, where labour shortages not only affect business productivity but also essential services, particularly in healthcare and social care.

Sub theme: COVID-19 and Brexit: A Double Economic Impact

While Brexit was perceived as a primary factor affecting the economy, COVID-19 was also highlighted as an exacerbating force. Many participants indicated that the pandemic had compounded the economic difficulties brought about by Brexit. One participant summarized, “If the businesses in Scotland were primarily reliant on immigrant workers, then it is difficult to measure whether the shortage of labour was due to Brexit or COVID-19.” This view reflects the broader challenges faced by businesses that were already grappling with Brexit-induced labour shortages, only to face further complications due to the global health crisis. Thomas, (2020) argue that the combined effects of Brexit and the pandemic have created a unique set of challenges for businesses, particularly those in rural areas, where labour mobility and trade have been significantly impacted. The economic impacts of Brexit on rural Scotland are multifaceted, involving financial crises, regulatory changes, and labour shortages. The increased cost of living, devaluation of the pound, and supply chain disruptions all contributed to the economic strain experienced by rural businesses. While some businesses have shown resilience, the compounded effects of Brexit and COVID-19 highlight the need for targeted policies that can address the labour shortages, business regulatory burdens, and economic uncertainties in rural areas. The findings of this study are consistent with Sampson, (2021), Jones & Martin (2019) and Krasniqi, (2023) who argue that small businesses, particularly those in rural areas, have been disproportionately affected by both Brexit and the COVID-19 pandemic. Future policy interventions should focus on improving immigration policies, supporting small businesses, and addressing the unique challenges faced by rural communities to help them recover and thrive in a post-Brexit economy.

Theme 2: Social Consequences of Brexit

Brexit has not only had economic repercussions but one of the most significant social consequences, as noted by participants in the study, is the increase in racism and xenophobia toward immigrants and minorities. This theme delves into how Brexit exacerbated social divisions, deepened existing inequalities, and created a more hostile environment for foreign nationals, particularly those from the EU.

Sub theme: Racism and Xenophobia

A key concern raised by participants was the pre-existing discriminatory attitudes and legal frameworks in the UK prior to Brexit, which were exacerbated by the changes brought about by the country’s departure from the EU. Several participants highlighted how laws, such as those that use homelessness as grounds for deporting foreign nationals, created an environment that marginalized immigrants even before the UK officially exited the EU. One immigrant participant expressed their frustration, stating: “Being discriminated by society is frustrating and new rules would/have exacerbated them because they will be pushed even further onto the fringes of society.” This aligns with (Rzepnikowska,2019). who argued that xenophobic and discriminatory laws were already in place prior to Brexit, but Brexit amplified these issues, leading to increased social isolation for immigrants and minority communities. The post-Brexit environment saw the introduction of new policies that heightened these pre-existing discriminatory practices. According to Goodwin & Heath, (2016) Brexit was seen as a vehicle that legitimized xenophobic sentiments, providing political cover for the rise of nationalism and racism. The Brexit referendum itself, as noted by Smith, (2020) acted as a catalyst for increasing racial tensions, as it framed immigration as a major issue. This social division fueled the rise of nationalist rhetoric, which subsequently reinforced discriminatory practices, especially against ethnic minorities. The social impact of Brexit was particularly evident in its exacerbation of social inequalities. Discriminatory attitudes toward immigrants and minority groups were cited as having become more widespread post-Brexit. Participants observed that the changes in legislation and the UK’s departure from the EU increased the marginalization of ethnic minorities, worsening economic suffering and social inequality. One participant shared: “It is evident from both British and international facts that ethnic minorities are discriminated in different aspects and more specifically in hiring decisions.” This reflects findings from Vincent, (2021) who noted that post-Brexit immigration restrictions disproportionately impacted minority groups, limiting their access to work, housing, and other essential services. The prevalence of racism in employment decisions was particularly highlighted in the responses, with participants noting that racial and ethnic minorities faced significant barriers when seeking employment. This aligns with Thomas, (2020) who found that Brexit contributed to an increase in discriminatory practices in hiring processes, as the focus on "British jobs for British workers" pushed minority applicants further away from gaining employment. Goodwin & Heath, (2016) further emphasized that Brexit served as a "turning point" in the UK’s social attitudes, contributing to an increase in ethnic and racial tensions, particularly in rural areas where immigration from the EU was a key contributor to the local economy. One of the most severe consequences of Brexit, as highlighted by the participants, was the surge in xenophobic and racist incidents following the 2016 EU referendum. Several participants observed that the referendum result legitimized discriminatory attitudes, leading to a rise in hate crimes, including those targeting migrant children and families. One participant, who had been the victim of racism, noted: “Migrant children and families face additional obstacles to accessing their rights due to poor, or no access to accommodation, social isolation, facing discrimination and racism.” This highlights the intersectionality of social issues, where migrants, especially those from ethnic minorities, faced not only social exclusion but also direct violence and discrimination. This finding is consistent with (Rzepnikowska,2019). who documented the rise in xenophobia post-Brexit, particularly among migrant communities. Participants in the study reported feeling increasingly excluded from social and economic life, with children of migrant families facing additional barriers in accessing education, healthcare, and social services.

Sub-theme: Social Isolation and Exclusion

The social exclusion of migrant communities in rural Scotland has emerged as a critical issue following Brexit. Participants in the study repeatedly emphasized a growing sense of disconnection from the wider community, which has been exacerbated by both institutional policies and social attitudes. One participant articulated, “We feel disconnected. It’s not just about the policies-it’s the attitudes. It’s hard to feel like you belong when you’re treated like an outsider.” This statement underscores the emotional and social toll of Brexit on migrant communities, reflecting the increased sense of alienation and marginalization they have experienced since the referendum. This experience aligns with the findings of Thomas, (2020) who argue that Brexit has significantly contributed to a sense of alienation among migrants, particularly in rural areas. These regions, where community ties are traditionally stronger and more insular, pose particular challenges to migrant integration. The insularity of rural communities, combined with the rise in xenophobia and discriminatory attitudes post-Brexit, has led to greater social fragmentation. In these areas, where cultural diversity may be less established than in urban centers, migrants are often seen as outsiders, making it harder for them to forge meaningful connections and engage in community life. The feelings of isolation experienced by migrant communities are further compounded by limited support systems for integration. Goodwin & Heath, (2016) argue that social exclusion is often exacerbated by a lack of inclusive policies that address both cultural integration and social cohesion. For migrant communities in rural Scotland, the absence of comprehensive integration programs means that migrants often find themselves navigating both economic hardships and social exclusion without sufficient resources or support networks. This can lead to a situation where migrants feel disconnected from their local communities, making it even more difficult to overcome the barriers posed by xenophobia and prejudice. The lack of inclusive policies is especially evident in areas such as education, housing, and healthcare, where migrants report difficulties in accessing services that are crucial for successful integration. As Rzepnikowska, (2019) observes, the experience of being treated as an outsider is not just a social experience, but a deeply structural issue related to policies that fail to recognize the specific needs of migrant populations. When the integration policies are inadequate or poorly implemented, migrants are more likely to experience social isolation, which can hinder their ability to establish stable lives in rural communities. The social isolation and exclusion faced by migrants have significant consequences, both for the individuals involved and for the broader community. Social cohesion is essential for creating vibrant, sustainable communities, and the social exclusion of migrants can undermine these efforts. Participants noted that a growing sense of disconnection from the wider community not only affects the well-being of migrants but also has negative economic implications. Vincent, (2021) argue that social cohesion is essential for rural development, and when migrant communities feel excluded, their ability to contribute economically and socially is diminished. Brexit has exacerbated these challenges by fostering a climate of division and xenophobia, which has led to heightened social tensions. The uncertainty created by Brexit, coupled with the distrust toward migrants in some rural areas, has made it harder for migrants to integrate fully into local social structures. Jones & Martin, (2019) highlight that migration policies post-Brexit have disproportionately impacted sectors that rely on migrant labour, further alienating these communities.

Sub theme: Social Integration and Cohesion

To address these issues, Goodwin & Heath, (2016) suggest that comprehensive integration policies are essential for overcoming social isolation and exclusion. In particular, policies that encourage cultural exchange, promote community engagement, and offer support to migrant communities in areas such as housing, education, and employment are crucial for building social cohesion. Some participants in the study mentioned the importance of local initiatives aimed at bridging gaps between migrant and host communities, such as community events and cultural programs that foster mutual understanding. However, the lack of systematic government support for these initiatives in rural areas has left many migrants feeling unsupported and excluded. Smith, (2020) argue that local resilience is essential to overcoming these challenges, and that community-led initiatives are vital in promoting integration. These efforts, however, need to be backed by national policies that recognize the specific challenges faced by migrant populations in rural Scotland, particularly in the wake of Brexit. As noted by Goodwin & Heath, (2016) and Rzepnikowska, (2019) addressing social exclusion requires comprehensive integration programs and inclusive policies that foster social cohesion and promote understanding between migrant and host communities. Without these policies, migrants will continue to experience social isolation and exclusion, undermining the social and economic fabric of rural Scotland. The social consequences of Brexit, as highlighted by the study participants, underscore the rise in xenophobia, racism, and social exclusion in the post-Brexit environment. These findings are in line with existing literature, which suggests that Brexit has legitimized discriminatory practices and exacerbated existing social inequalities (Rzepnikowska, 2019; Goodwin & Heath, 2016). The increase in xenophobic hate crimes, discriminatory practices in employment, and the marginalization of ethnic minorities have all contributed to the weakening of social cohesion in rural areas. To address these social consequences, targeted integration policies, cultural exchange programs, and community engagement initiatives are needed to foster inclusivity and reduce social divides. The rise in xenophobic and racist incidents post-Brexit highlights the urgent need for inclusive governance and social policies that protect vulnerable communities, especially in rural areas where the impacts of Brexit are more pronounced. Effective policy responses will be essential for rebuilding a cohesive, inclusive society in the post-Brexit UK.

Theme 3: Political Impact of Brexit

Brexit's political impact on migrant communities in rural Scotland is profound, particularly concerning changes in immigration policy and the associated policy reforms. The shift in immigration laws, especially the ending of the free movement of people, has been perceived by many participants as a setback for migrants who had previously enjoyed relatively smooth access to work and welfare in the UK. Through the data collected in focus group discussions, two key political impacts emerged: new immigration policies and the need for policy reforms to better support migrants.

Sub theme: New Immigration Policy Restricting Mobility and Rights

A central concern for participants was the complexity and rigidity of the new immigration policies post-Brexit. Many participants expressed frustration with these policies, which restricted the mobility of migrant workers and limited their access to essential services. One participant remarked, “The new immigration policies are not just bureaucratic; they make us feel unwelcome. It’s like they don’t want us here.” This sentiment is echoed by Goodwin & Heath, (2016) who argue that Brexit policies have been used to foster a climate of nationalism and exclusion, impacting not just migrants' rights but also their sense of belonging in the United Kingdom. The end of the free movement of workers from the EU significantly altered the rights and opportunities available to migrants in the UK. According to many participants, those on temporary visas-such as work, family, or student visas-are now subject to increased restrictions on their rights and entitlements. One participant explained: “It’s incredibly hard to build a stable life here when you’re constantly worrying about your rights and entitlements.” This insecurity, coupled with reduced access to public funds, has marginalized migrant communities, particularly in rural areas where migrants contribute significantly to local economies. These sentiments align with Rzepnikowska, (2019) who highlighted that Brexit's immigration policies have created a climate of uncertainty, particularly for migrant workers in sectors such as agriculture, hospitality, and healthcare, where they had been integral to sustaining business operations. The lack of clarity regarding future rights and entitlements has deterred many from settling or making long-term investments in their communities. Additionally, the end of free movement has placed a particular strain on the labour market in rural Scotland. As one participant noted, “The constraints on outflow of labour force have a significant effect because migrants in Scotland supported the economy of the county in different ways.” The loss of skilled workers and seasonal labour-key drivers of economic productivity in rural areas-has deepened the wage stagnation observed in the post-Brexit landscape. Jones & Martin, (2019) argue that Brexit has led to a slower wage and productivity growth in the UK, as the demand for labour in agriculture, healthcare, and other sectors remains unmet due to the restricted movement of people. Another participant shared their view on the long-term effects of the new immigration policy, stating, “The long-lasting legacy of the UK's departure from the EU will likely mean slower wage and productivity growth over the next decade, it concludes.” This perspective is aligned with Sampson, (2021) who emphasized that reduced migration not only impacts the availability of labour but also results in slower economic recovery, particularly in industries reliant on migrant workers. With fewer migrants, businesses face difficulties filling vacancies, which limits economic growth and social stability. While some participants recognized that the UK's control over its borders might be viewed as a positive by certain factions of the population, others expressed concern over the broader implications. One participant stated, “Brexit has expelled EU citizens being illegally in the country which may diminish some challenges.” This reflects a two-way process of migration control, which offers both challenges and opportunities. On the one hand, it reduces the number of undocumented migrants; on the other hand, it limits the labour force that plays a crucial role in rural economies. For many migrants, the end of free movement and limited access to public funds have created significant challenges, both economically and socially. As one participant described, “It is quite strange; your equal rights are violated until you are permanent residence of UK because then you have access to public funds.” This lack of equal treatment for temporary migrants not only undermines their ability to contribute fully to the economy but also exacerbates social exclusion. Vincent, (2021) argue that this kind of policy perpetuates inequality, as it reduces opportunities for integration and economic participation for migrants who are often already marginalized.

Sub-theme: Policy Disconnect

One of the major concerns expressed by participants was the disconnect between government policies and the realities faced by rural businesses in the post-Brexit landscape. Many participants felt that the policies implemented following Brexit were often designed with urban businesses in mind, neglecting the unique challenges and needs of rural areas. One participant encapsulated this frustration by stating, “Policies are designed with urban businesses in mind, leaving us to navigate rural-specific challenges alone.” This critique mirrors the observations of Sampson, (2021) who highlighted that rural areas have not received adequate attention in the design of Brexit-related policies, especially in terms of economic recovery plans. Government initiatives, such as trade deals or financial support packages, have tended to favor larger urban businesses with more resources to adapt to new regulations, leaving rural communities to grapple with the fallout from these changes without sufficient assistance. Krasniqi (2023) suggest that post-Brexit policies have largely favored urban areas, often overlooking the specific vulnerabilities of rural regions, such as limited access to resources, reduced infrastructure, and geographical isolation. The disconnect between national policies and the specific needs of rural areas is evident in the struggles of migrant entrepreneurs. Many participants, especially those running businesses that depend on migrant labour, expressed frustration over the lack of targeted support for rural entrepreneurs. With Brexit-era immigration restrictions limiting access to migrant workers, these entrepreneurs face labour shortages that directly affect their ability to maintain business operations. As one participant noted, “We’ve been left behind. We’re trying to keep things running with fewer workers, but the policies don’t reflect our reality. They don’t understand the specific needs we have.” This perspective is consistent with Vincent, (2021) who argue that migration policies that are more suited to urban environments have left rural businesses with few options for addressing labour shortages. Furthermore, local governments in rural areas have had limited support or guidance from central government to adapt to the changes imposed by Brexit. This has led to a lack of infrastructure, inadequate resources, and insufficient guidance for rural businesses trying to navigate new trade regulations and visa restrictions. As Jones & Martin, (2019) point out, local-level responses to economic challenges in rural areas have been disjointed and inconsistent, exacerbating the economic divide between rural and urban communities.

Theme 4: Policy Reform Recommendations

Following Brexit, participants in the study strongly advocated for comprehensive policy reforms to support rural Scotland and migrant communities. They highlighted the importance of fostering inclusivity, collaboration, and sustainable development through policy interventions. These recommendations address the economic, social, and political challenges caused by Brexit, with a focus on building a more cohesive society and creating opportunities for migrant integration and rural business development.

Sub Theme: Promoting Inclusivity and Collaboration

A major theme that emerged from the participants' responses was the need for policies that bring people together, rather than deepening existing divides. As one participant succinctly put it: “We need policies that bring us together, not divide us. Collaboration is key to progress.” This sentiment reflects a desire to break down the barriers that have been exacerbated by Brexit and foster greater understanding and cooperation between migrant and local communities. To address this, participants suggested cultural exchange programs to enhance mutual understanding and promote inclusivity. This aligns with the perspective of Goodwin & Heath, (2016) who argue that cultural exchange and community engagement are essential for overcoming social divides, particularly in rural areas where cultural differences are more pronounced. Additionally, digital upskilling initiatives were recommended to help migrants adapt to an increasingly digital economy. As one participant stated, “We need programs that help migrants build skills and get access to new opportunities, especially in the tech and digital sectors.”

Sub theme: Flexible Immigration Policies

Another significant recommendation was the introduction of flexible immigration policies to address the pressing labour shortages in rural Scotland. One participant shared their frustration, saying: “It’s incredibly hard to build a stable life here when you’re constantly worrying about your rights and entitlements.” The post-Brexit immigration policies have limited access to essential migrant labour, particularly in industries like agriculture, healthcare, and hospitality. Participants emphasized the need for work visas that are tailored to specific sectoral needs in rural areas. As another participant pointed out: “We need policies that help us find workers when we need them, not ones that make it harder to bring them in.” This reflects the broader concern that Brexit’s immigration rules have created significant barriers for businesses in rural Scotland that rely on seasonal and low-skilled labour. The recommendation is consistent with Jones & Martin, (2019) who argue that immigration policies should be more flexible and better aligned with the real-world needs of rural industries.

Sub Theme: Financial Support for Businesses and Rural Development

Participants also emphasized the need for financial support for rural businesses to help them cope with the economic challenges caused by Brexit. Many rural businesses, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), have struggled with the increased operational costs, labour shortages, and regulatory changes post-Brexit. One participant summarized the concern: “We need government support to get through this-whether it’s financial aid or subsidies to help with costs.” As Krasniqi, (2023) suggest, financial incentives and subsidies are crucial for sustaining rural businesses. Participants also recommended that the Scottish Government invest in rural development programs, with a focus on improving infrastructure, increasing digital access, and supporting migrant entrepreneurs. One participant voiced: “The Scottish Government can introduce a flexible immigrant policy to support migrant entrepreneurs to start their businesses here.” By providing targeted support for migrant-run businesses, rural communities can benefit from the entrepreneurial drive migrants bring to local economies.

Sub Themes: Integration and Reduction of Discrimination

Participants repeatedly called for policies that promote social integration and reduce discrimination. One participant expressed: “Effective policies must focus on building an inclusive society that values the contributions of all its members.” There is a strong desire for government policies that encourage community engagement and anti-discrimination initiatives, particularly for migrants and minority groups. These initiatives would help foster inclusivity in both rural businesses and local communities. In addition, participants recommended cultural exchange programs and language training to help migrants better integrate into society and reduce the cultural gaps that often lead to discrimination. This reflects findings from Smith (2020), who argue that successful integration depends on addressing both cultural differences and the structural barriers migrants face in their daily lives.

Sub Themes: A Cohesive and Holistic Strategy

Finally, participants emphasized the need for a cohesive and holistic policy strategy to address the interconnected economic, social, and political challenges caused by Brexit. One participant concluded: “We need a strategy that addresses everything-economic recovery, social cohesion, and migration policy.” This perspective highlights the complexity of the issues at hand and the need for comprehensive, coordinated efforts from both the UK Government and Scottish Government to create a sustainable and inclusive future. Rzepnikowska, (2019) and Krasniqi, (2023) agree that piecemeal policy approaches will not be enough to rebuild resilience in rural areas. A holistic approach that integrates economic recovery, social cohesion, and migration policies is essential to overcoming the challenges posed by Brexit. The recommendations provided by participants highlight the need for inclusive policies that foster integration, collaboration, and economic recovery in the post-Brexit landscape. Flexibility in immigration policies, financial support for rural businesses, and the promotion of social integration are key strategies that could help rebuild rural Scotland’s economy and create a more inclusive society. By simplifying immigration processes, providing financial incentives, and supporting migrant entrepreneurship, the Scottish and UK governments can foster economic resilience and social cohesion, ensuring a more sustainable future for rural Scotland in the post-Brexit era. In conclusion, the thematic analysis of the focus group discussions provides valuable insights into the profound and multifaceted impacts of Brexit on rural Scotland. The economic consequences have been particularly harsh, with rising costs, disrupted trade, labor shortages, and increased regulatory burdens. These economic strains have been compounded by the social challenges of heightened xenophobia, racism, and social exclusion, particularly within migrant communities. Politically, Brexit has introduced restrictive immigration policies that have disproportionately affected rural areas, further exacerbated labor shortages and impeded social integration. However, participants also identified key recommendations for policy reform, emphasizing the need for more inclusive, flexible, and holistic strategies that support migrant communities, promote collaboration between migrant and local populations, and foster economic resilience. These findings underscore the urgency of addressing the specific needs of rural Scotland and the importance of tailored interventions that prioritize economic recovery, social cohesion, and migration management. Such policies are crucial for ensuring a sustainable and inclusive future in the post-Brexit era.

End Note

In conclusion, this research has contributed significantly to understanding the multifaceted impacts of Brexit on rural Scotland, particularly for migrant entrepreneurs. The study has highlighted the economic, social, and political challenges faced by these entrepreneurs and has proposed several policy recommendations aimed at addressing these issues.  By employing a mixed-methods approach and grounding the research in Social Identity Theory, the study has contributed valuable insights into the intersection of migration, rural entrepreneurship, and Brexit. The findings highlight the challenges faced by migrant entrepreneurs and the resilience they demonstrate in overcoming these barriers. However, the study also underscores the need for continued research and policy intervention to support migrant entrepreneurs and ensure the long-term sustainability of rural economies in the post-Brexit landscape. The research has important real-world implications, offering recommendations for policy changes that can enhance the integration and success of migrant entrepreneurs in rural Scotland.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to all those who have contributed to the completion of this PhD thesis. This journey has been both challenging and rewarding, and I could not have accomplished it without the support and assistance of numerous individuals and institutions.

First and foremost, I am immensely grateful to my colleagues and mentors for their invaluable guidance, encouragement, and unwavering support throughout the entire research process. Their expertise, patience, and constructive feedback have been instrumental in shaping my research and guiding me to the successful completion of this thesis.

I owe my deepest gratitude to my late father; whose motivation and encouragement were the driving force behind my decision to pursue PhD. He always believed in my potential and his words have stayed with me, motivating me to achieve my goals. I also want to express my heartfelt thanks to my mother for her constant support, determination, and attention to my studies ensured I was always on track to pursue my education in the best institutions, enabling me to realize my dreams.

I am incredibly thankful to my husband, who has been a source of immense support throughout my PhD journey. His unwavering encouragement, love, and patience helped me stay focused. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my siblings and friends, whose unwavering encouragement, understanding, and support have been indispensable. Their belief in my abilities has always been a source of motivation, and I am truly grateful for their presence and support in my life. Lastly, I would like to thank all the participants, institutions, and organizations that have contributed to this research. Their willingness to share their experiences and insights has made this study possible.

To all of you, I am forever grateful for your love, support, and belief in me. Thank you for helping me achieve this milestone.

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