Macau, a former Portuguese colony, was returned the territory of Macao to the People’s Republic of China in 1999. It was one of the most prosperous ports in the Far East from the late of sixteenth Century to the early of seventeenth Century. Tourism, hospitality and gambling are main parts of economic structure and revenues. In 2005, Macau was written into the Historic Centre of Macau on UNESCO’s World Heritage List because of Macau’s rich history and diversity of cultures. This study explores the importance of residents’ destination image and perception of tourism impacts in shaping their supporting for event development. The Social Exchange Model (SET) proposed residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts influence destination and in turn their support for tourism development. This research aims to explore Macau local residents support for event tourism development and to examine the various impacts from conducting event tourism development in Macau. A qualitative approach adopted with a sample of 30 respondents. Semi-structured questions are asked through in-depth interviews and recommendations are made based on the results to provide insights for industry practitioners. Result indicated resident support the event base on reduced and considered environmental impact for future suggestion. Implication for destination marketer need to make use of innovative marketing strategies such us adopted technology via social media platform as result create positive word of the mouth.

Keywords: Macau residents, Event tourism, Destination image, Tourism impact.

Geographic Background   

               Gambling in Macau has been legal since the 1850s when the Portuguese government legalized the activity in the autonomous colony. Since then, Macau has

become known worldwide as the ‘Gambling capital of the world’ or ‘Monte Carlo of the East’. To attract visitors, the Macau government adopted event tourism and held many conferences, exhibitions and festivals over the last decade. The total number of participants and attendees was 694,000. A total of 1,381 meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) were organized throughout 2017, and the number of participants and attendees reached 1,901,000 (DSEC, 2017). Built conferences and exhibitions centers were improved for the event infrastructure and the quality of venue. Many events such as food festival were launched for Macau residents and visitors wherein various cuisines from different countries were made available.

               Liberalization of gaming was a milestone for the tourism development in Macau started from 2002, attracting vast investment from all over the world to build mega-casinos such as Wynn Resorts Ltd, MGM and the Las Vegas Sands Corporation. Although many casino resorts had been built in Macau, local government did not want to overly rely on gambling. As result of shifting from gambling to MICE and event tourism, many high –end convention centre were set up in Macau over the last decade. Government attempted to promote event tourism for capture more visitors to Macau.

               Event tourism has become a common tool to promote destination which tend to host various events for economic benefits, cultural exchange and environmental protection that can accrue. Tourism greatly influences residents’ transportation, lifestyle, cultural change and destination image, and tourism development cannot be excellent without residents’ positive attitude and support (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Lee, 2013). Tourism impacts can be categorized into economic, socio-cultural and environmental or positive and negative. Over the past several years, many scholars (Kim et al., 2013) demonstrated the positive and negative economic impacts of destination tourism to residents.  They stated that tourism development can generate more employment opportunities, vast investments and profitable local businesses and increase the standard of living. Pizam (1996) also suggested the economic benefits of tourism. Positive tourism impacts include improving tax revenue in local government and personal income, increasing standard of living and improving personal attitude towards employment. The drawback is that cost of living simultaneously increases, including prices of goods and services.

               Balduck, Maes and Buelens (2011) defined social impact as the behaviors towards destination and travel that lead to changes in tourists’ and residents’ lifestyle, behavior patterns, environmental protection and cultural exchange. Social impacts were explained in various studies, scholars reached the consensus that social impact is an important theory. Social benefits can lead to residents taking pride in their locality and native culture, understanding the characteristics of visitors, promoting cultural communication and bringing social identity and welfare. Tassiopoulos and Johnson (2009) found direct socio-cultural support to tourism development when residents and local charities can receive positive socio-cultural benefits, including cultural exchanges and preserved culture and heritage. Therefore, event tourism provide various impact to the society, marketer ca not be ignored from these viewpoints.

               The government utilized Macau’s advantages to develop event and attract visitors.

 

Table 1 summarizes the major tourism events designed and organized by the Macau governmental organizations. The table includes major annual events and festivals in Macau SAR. Most of these events may capture media attention and benefits the local economy.

Many special events are held for residents and visitors every year. The total number of participants and attendees was 694,000 in 2017, 1,381 MICE events were organized and the number of participants and attendees reached 1,901,000. The number of meetings and conferences went up by 2 on a yearly basis and the number of participants rose by 23.8%, which was attributable to the increase in meetings and conferences with 200 participants or more. Meetings and conferences whereas the number of participants expanded by 40.1% (DSEC, 2018). Most of the meetings and conferences were held in November 2017 at 143 (+7); however, the number of participants dropped by 26.3% on a monthly basis to 25,000 (DSEC, 2018). Given these figures, investigating how locals perceive the event development in Macau is worthwhile to enhance understanding of how do they think of the destination image and what kind of impact will be made in the community. Using the results of the investigation, the government can uplift the policy in facilitating the environment and benefit the local community.

 

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

               Event tourism is a combination of tourism and event industries, propelling tourism planning and marketing and holding and marketing events as a new attraction for visitors (Getz, 1991; 1997). Getz (2008) stated that a great event development planning should integrate approaches toward tourism destination and marketing strategies. The goals of event tourism include gaining more revenues or income for local government from visitors and exhibitors, creating a great and famous destination image, enhancing locals’ self-identity and improving infrastructure and public transportation and environmental benefits to residents.

 

               Events result in sharing views and opinions with others to achieve a successful and meaningful outcome (Silvers, 2004). In addition, events bring infrastructure improvement and social impacts to a destination and provide jobs and income for economic and city development (Konstantaki & Wickens, 2010; Soutar & McLeod, 1993). Positive economic impacts are increasing revenue, solving unemployment and minimize inflation. At the same time, these events can result in potential negatives to residents such as increased cost of living, traffic congestion and environmental pollution. Tourism destination can attract tourists, businesses and investments by improving positive impacts and handling negative ones (Popescu & Corbos, 2012). The destination or city can increase its destination competitiveness through tourism development (Donald & Getz, 2007) and provide many economic or social benefits to residents and visitors to celebrate their collective achievements. Such an approach provides interaction between visitors and residents. Thus, events are meaningful for researchers, as they can study individuals and communities as a whole (Reid, 2007). Tourism destination practitioners and marketers agree that event tourism should be an important industry for enhancing economic growth and cultural exchange in tourism destinations (Fredline, Jago, & Deery, 2003). However, events generate media coverage because they help destination practitioners and marketers create a positive image to visitors and bring benefits to the tourism industry (Derret, 2011).

               Holding events is a popular approach for fun or entertainment in different areas. The benefit not only limited to visitors at the same time they can benefit locals. Fredline and Faulkner (2000) found that during ambivalence among residents, they tend to go at Gold Coast for motorsport events to relax themselves. This event is also a positive part of their lives. Gibson and Davidson (2004) stated that perception of residents for a local country music festival is that it can bring a positive image to local community. McCartney (2005) stated that residents also have a positive attitude towards Macau Grand Prix because it made Macau become an international city. This event created more attractive strategies and propelled planning to develop event businesses that fully understood residents’ perception and avoided the negative impacts in Macau. This important issue that residents focused on could affect their positive perception towards events. This designation could also add economic benefits to the government and residents because it might result in local events, providing various impacts from tourism events.

               Au (2016) examined how accommodating visitors make cities crowded. As a consequence of visitors competing against residents for goods and services, many residents avoid visiting cultural attractions in Macau. Chen (2011) identified the benefits generated from job opportunities to residents. However, discussion based on event development is limited. Previous scholar (Christina, 2008) focused their study on destination image of visitors than residents. Destination image is an important element for destination management in tourism as it influences tourists’ destination and overall satisfaction as well as their destination loyalty and revisit option. With destination image as basis, destination marketers can carry out a valuable approach to balance the image from visitor perspectives. Stylidis (2014) suggested that residents’ destination image also exerts a positive effect on their perception of tourism impacts by drawing on the triple bottom line approach and adopting a non-forced approach and then understanding residents’ attitudes and perception towards tourism development. However, discussion based on residents’ destination image is limited. Destination image and impact are crucial for residents such that they take pride and create positive word of mouth. Therefore, this study attempted to use the viewpoint of residents to provide policy makers with recommendations on how to uplift the destination image and create a positive image for the local community. 

  

               Previous scholars major focus on Macau casino development or casino-related issues, thus overlooking other industries. (Taormina & Kuok, 2009; Wong & Rosenbaum, 2012; Chan, Wan & Kwok, 2015; McCartney, 2016;) If we can understand residents perception to tourism impacts can help government recognize various impact, reduce conflicts between tourist and residents as result create plans for motivating residents to support tourism development. This research attempted to fill the aforementioned gaps.

 

               The study objectives to examine residents ‘attitudes toward event development in Macau; to identify the perception of residents towards event tourism’s effect on destination image and various impact in the community; to investigate whether residents perceived impact affect their support to event development in Macau and provide suggest to government for future destination development.

 

               The expected outcomes to marketers can enhance their understanding of how to market events and enhance the image of the destination. Study made recommendations to the government for future destination development and improvement. From the operation perspective, government can utilize relative infrastructure and ensure accessibility of the venue to create attendee satisfaction and loyalty. Conversely from residents’ perspective, understand their needs and want and reduce the conflict between locals and visitors, as result can create an positive word of the mouth in promoting Macau.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Rationale of Event Tourism

               Event tourism has been agreed as one of the most popular parts of tourism development in countries and cities because of its rapid growth and environment friendliness. Event tourism is a combination of tourism and event industries, propelling tourism planning and marketing and holding and marketing events as a new attraction for visitors (Getz, 1991; 1997). Getz (2008) stated that a great event development planning should integrate approaches toward tourism destination and marketing strategies. The goals of event tourism include gaining more revenues or income for local government from visitors and exhibitors, creating a great and famous destination image, enhancing locals’ self-identity and improving infrastructure and public transportation and environmental benefits to residents.

               Events result in sharing views and opinions with others to achieve a successful and meaningful outcome (Silvers, 2004). In addition, events bring infrastructure improvement and social impacts to a destination and provide jobs and income for economic and city development (Konstantaki & Wickens, 2010; Soutar & McLeod, 1993). Positive economic impacts are increasing revenue, solving unemployment and minimizing inflation. The destination or city can increase its destination competitiveness through tourism development (Donald & Getz, 2007) and provide many economic or social benefits to residents and visitors to celebrate their collective achievements. Such an approach provides interaction between visitors and residents. Thus, events are meaningful for researchers, as they can study individuals and communities as a whole (Reid, 2007). Tourism destination practitioners and marketers agree that event tourism should be an important industry for enhancing economic growth and cultural exchange in tourism destinations (Fredline, Jago & Deery, 2003). However, events generate media coverage because they help destination practitioners and marketers create a positive image to visitors and bring benefits to the tourism industry (Derret, 2011).

               Holding events is a popular approach for fun or entertainment in different areas. Fredline and Faulkner (2000) found that during ambivalence among residents, they tend to go at Gold Coast for motorsport events to relax themselves. This event is also a positive part of their lives. Gibson and Davidson (2004) stated that perception of residents for a local country music festival is that it can bring a positive image to local community. McCartney (2005) stated that residents also have a positive attitude towards Macau Grand Prix because it made Macau become an international city. This event created more attractive strategies and propelled planning to develop event businesses that fully understood residents’ perception and avoided the negative impacts in Macau. Chen (2011) stated that the Macau government should find a propelling approach that can relieve the pressure from social services. This important issue that residents focused on could affect their positive perception towards events. This designation could also add economic benefits to the government and residents because it might result in local events, providing various impacts from tourism events.

 

DESTINATION IMAGE CONCEPTION

               Destination image is crucial for tourism development in terms of organizing a meaningful tourism planning and marketing strategy for a destination. Hunt (1975) stated that images are extrinsically important because they could project the images and provide an overview of a city into a potential tourist’s view. Understanding the differing images that visitors and non-visitors hold of a destination is important; thus, the government and marketers could propel tourism planning to attract visitors and non-visitors so as to develop tourism in a particular area (Selby Morgan, 1996). A destination image is defined as a significant element for tourism destination management and marketing because it affects the supply-demand aspect, such as tourist attitudes and especially their perception towards destinations (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996). Furthermore, destination image is frequently defined to include beliefs, thoughts and perceptions that visitors hold towards their destination (Crompton, 1979). It is an important element for a successful and meaning tourism planning marketing. Majority of scholars covered a wide range of themes related to this topic, such as the dimension and conceptualization of destination images (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999).

               Mayo (1973) proposed three basic factors of images, namely, scenery, traffic condition and climate. According to Mayo’s points of study, destination images would become relevant and attractive with sufficient scenery and moderate population. However, tourists find that a comfortable climate is an excellent attraction for local destinations. Moutinho (1987) also proposed three factors for destination images, namely, consciousness, attitude and expectation. Fakeye and Crompton (1991) added another element to the conception towards destination images and formulated complex images when visitors have directly experienced and perceived their destination. Gunn’s (1998) theory, which includes original and induced images, Gunn (1972) pointed out that the target image should contain two elements, namely, organic and induced. Through an organic image of the destination, a potential tourist can learn or perceive the destination information by newspapers, radio, television, documentaries, journals and books. However, an induced image is a consequence of the promotion, such as paid advertising, publicity, public relations and rewards, of a specific place as a tourist destination (Gunn, 1997).

               Examining the destination images of residents has become a frequent object of studies worldwide. Residents’ image of the destination where they live and work is necessary and brings meaning to the understanding of their attitude, perception and behavioral intentions, such as their support for tourism development based on destination images and tourism impacts on their city and the benefits that they gain from the tourism industry (Ramkissoon & Nunkoo, 2011). Echtner and Ritchie (1993) suggested that researchers could create structured and unstructured methods for the study on tourism development. That is, gathering feedback on destination images from visitors and residents is extremely convenient. Destination images could be regarded as a whole or destination elements, where each element consists of functional (tangible) or psychological (intangible or abstract) characteristics (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). These images could portray the visitors’ or residents’ view and perception. Beerli and Martin (2004) studied the measurement of destination images among visitors and residents. They found that destination images should consist of cognitive, affective and conative components. The cognitive component of the image is related to a person’s beliefs and information about the destination and their outcomes, which can help visitors or residents to form an internally meaningful mental picture of this destination (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Pike & Ryan, 2004). It is also regarded as visitors’ or residents’ reaction and enjoyment of the resources and infrastructure in the tourist destination (Stabler, 1995). The affective component of images indicates a person’s feelings and emotional responses towards a destination (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997). The conative component refers to a person’s action or behavior in the destination (Bigné et al., 2001; Gartner, 1994).

               Previous studies (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982) provided other important factors that exert an impact on destination images and suggested that destination images differ according to area (i.e. cultural subgroups, specifically ethnic groups), gender and social class. Socio-demographic characteristics (i.e. age, gender, household status, education, income and residence/geographic distance from the destination) also have been considered to influence a person’s perception and beliefs of a destination image (Baloglu & McClear, 1999). The consequence between respondents’ distances from the same regions would not differ (Hunt, 1975). In terms of gender, Ryan and Aicken (2010) discovered that men are more favorable towards economic impacts, whereas women are critical of planning procedures. In terms of geographic distance factors, Walmsley and Young (1998) predicted that destination images are influenced by personal experience and knowledge through long-term assimilation of destination-related information. In terms of experience, Davis (1988) proposed that if people receive more information and knowledge towards tourism development, then they may fully support or display positive perceptions towards tourism development in a destination. MacKay and Fesenmaier (2000) investigated the influence of culture on environmental preferences from destination images and converted it into a pure landscape preference. However, studies on people’s involvement in the tourism industry, especially participation and perception, are few, which may resulted in a perceived destination image. Residents’ destination image is important means of understanding the reason for the support on tourism development. That is, a person is focused on the unique characteristics and tourism impacts of a destination rather than psychological involvement with the place.

 

BENEFIT OF DESTINATION IMAGE TO RESIDENTS

Various events conduct in a destination can potential uplift destination image. Locals will take pride and have more sense of belongings for their community. Destination image research is one of the most investigated issues in tourism development for marketing, visitors and residents. Destination image is a critical element in tourism industry planning and destination marketing because it can affect the relationship between the supply and demand of marketing. Residents’ perception of a destination (i.e. city or town) in which they live was examined (Henkel, Agrusa & Tanner, 2006; Schroeder, 1996; Stylidis, Sit & Biran, 2016). To benefit residents, tourism development should focus on residents’ perception of destination image rather than tourists’.

               Research about residents’ perceived destination image, attitude and view towards their place was further supported by changing destination image and tourism development. According to Merrilees, Miller and Herington (2009) highlighted residents’ perception to natural environment, business activities next to public transportation, social behaviors, employment opportunities and government characters. Various factors affecting residents’ perception should be considered for future developments to sustain a destination’s special characteristics and avoid any negative impact. Therefore, it is worthwhile for investigate how local residents their attitudes towards to behavior of event development in a destination.

 

RESIDENT ATTITUDE TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

 

               Resident attitude has been an important issue in recent tourism studies. Resident attitude is formulated by the perception of residents towards various benefits. Resident attitude likely differs from the perception and behavior of destination visitors (Devine, 2009). Keogh (1990) stated that the more government and marketers gave and provided individual benefits and welfare to residents, the more positive the attitudes towards tourism development from local communities.

               Andriotis and Vaughan (2003) stated that determining factor of residents’ attitudes is that residents cannot realize the negative impacts towards tourism development. Residents’ attitude can be summarized into three aspects: cognitive (beliefs, knowledge and perceptions), affective (likes and dislikes), and behavioral (action taken or expressed) (Carmichael, 2000). Harrill and Potts (2003) suggested that resident attitude is an important foundation for economic and destination development. When people living in tourism areas cannot get or receive economic benefits from local visitors in tourism industry, they develop negative attitudes towards local tourism development. Therefore, important influential factors of tourism development from the residents’ side should be understood fully to realize residents’ motivation (Harrill, 2004). Long, Perdue and Allen (1990) concluded that resident attitude toward tourism development and planning is positive at the beginning. However, if the cost is more expensive than the benefits that the residents can get, then resident attitude will reach the maximum. Support for destination development decreases afterwards. The attitudes are not related to residents’ characteristics, except for education and gender.

 

               Pavlina (2013) found that residents who get more individual benefits from destination tourism and realize that tourism as a propel towards positive tourism industry fully support future destination and tourism development. He also stated that all residents have full perception towards positive and negative tourism impacts, suggesting heterogeneity within these communities. Useful marketing strategies should be made by local practitioners and marketers, rather than presenting simple theories that tourism benefits residents by stating that residents’ expectations and needs in tourism development are different.

               However, Girard and Gartner (1993) examined long-term and short-term residents in Wisconsin. Long-term residents are willing to see increased tourism development in their destination. They are satisfied with the better goods and services from tourism industry development.

 

PERCEIVED TOURISM IMPACTS BY LOCAL RESIDENTS

 

               Many studies concluded the importance of residents’ perception towards tourism impacts in the tourism industry. Residents support tourism development on the basis of their perceived tourism impacts (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011; 2012). Tourism can lead to changes in residents’ perception, daily lives, social behaviors, beliefs and values. Residents’ perception or attitude towards tourism impacts received scholarly attention worldwide due to its fundamental importance in the development and management of sustainable tourism in a tourist destination (Sharpley, 2014). Jurowski (2004) suggested three important factors in the tourism industry: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. Economic impacts include revenues or income increase, many employment opportunities, capital investment increase, foreign exchange leakage, tax burden, inflation, shortage of material and service industry and local government debt. Residents realize negative economic impacts if cost of living and prices of goods and services increase. They realize positive economic impacts if tourism provides more jobs to residents, increase local revenue, residents’ income and their quality of life.

 

               Socio-cultural elements include racial and cultural identity, increased leisure opportunities, increased cultural communication and exchange, increased crime rates and changes in traditional cultures. Brunt and Courtney (1999) also found that local residents and the community also realize positive tourism impacts by increasing cultural exchanges, communicating with different cultural people and protecting historical and cultural heritage. Tourism has the potential to positively and negatively affect residents in three main exchange domains. Negative tourism impacts identified by some researchers (Andereck et al., 2005; Martin, 2008; Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2009) include increased crime rate, drug abuse, worse social behaviors and destroyed traditional culture and values.

 

               Environmental impacts include protected scenic spots and creatures, controlled logistics issue, crowded air management, water and noise pollution and destroyed creatures and trees (Andereck, 1995). The environment is also an important theme in tourism development. Tourism can result in extensive environmental damages. Tourism destinations are attractive, but they can result in fragile environments without effective management from organizers and marketers (Andereck & McGehee, 2008). Tourism also causes traffic congestion, crowding, noise and pollution. Residents perceive positive environmental impacts when tourism industry can preserve local culture and heritages, enhance environmental conservation awareness and keep communities quiet and roads clean. Tourism impacts can be considered negative if they bring disruption to society’s orders or social stability. Positive impacts can enhance vital attributes.

 

               Indeed, social-cultural, environmental and economic impact was crucial for event development. However, technology impact was often missing in event development’s studies .Technology impact are very powerful ingredient and it might be motivated and could affect the perceptions viewers of a destination image and travel decision –making process. (Yen & Croy, 2016). Previous scholar highlight destination familiarity refers to a combination of previous exposure and the level of information obtained, to develop a recognizable construction of the destination (Baloglu, 2001). Therefore, this research attempt to fill the gaps for previous studies.

    

               In the tourism context, residents’ attitudes and behaviors are influenced by extrinsic factors such as the situation of development (Butler, 2010; Doxey, 1975), Residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts often promises industries’ practitioners and marketers better strategies for local destination economic growth and community development. Analyzing tourism impacts in destinations by understanding residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts will help tourism industry gain support from local community as well as ensure sustainable development. As Morgan (2012) noted, successful tourism destinations should be places that enhance the welfare of and benefits to its residents and provide a great approach towards sustainable living.

 

RESIDENTS’ PERCEIVED TOURISM IMPACTS ON TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

 

Tourism plays an important role in economic component programs worldwide. Despite the popularity of tourism planning in this research field, only a limited number of tourism planning approaches were published in planning journals (Jamal et al., 2002; Marcouiller, 1997). Many governments and planners regarded tourism as a stable economic development strategy under many residents experience industrial restructuring. Bello (2018) stated that social awareness and educational level in tourism development were regarded as major factors in the residents’ participation in tourism planning. Harrill (2004) suggested that policy makers on tourism planning should prioritize the protection of a city’s social order, economic improvement, and environmental protection, such that communities and visitors remain satisfied. They should also consider the residents’ understanding of the meaning and benefits of tourism development in relation to destination development and willingness to maintain the local community’s quality of life. Padin (2012) proposed that an effective tourism planning according to destination should incorporate three factors, namely, economic, social and environmental development, into models of tourism planning. These factors are easy to find in the literature and frequently arise independently and without coordination. Bello (2018) suggested that governments and marketers should reconsider the local residents’ willingness to support tourism planning. As previously noted, several factors limit the participation of local residents. When applied to this situation, Macau should rethink the conduct of its events, which may affect the local community. As a result, the trade-off between economic benefits and the local community may harm the environment. Therefore, investigating residents’ perception of development of events is worthwhile.

 

The lack of appropriate tourism planning and management can cause problems, such as a decrease in residents’ economic benefits from tourism impacts. This situation may result in hostility or dissatisfaction towards tourists and tourism development, which will eventually contribute to the destination’s decline. If tourists create much traffic congestion and crowd public places in environmental impacts, residents will become angry, unhappy and eventually dissatisfied with tourists and may treat them impolitely. In addition, residents may ignore how much tourism can help the development of the local economy or increase job opportunities and income. Therefore, understanding the significance of resident perception and attitudes towards the development of the tourism industry and realizing the requirement for the planning of tourist destinations in many developed and developing areas or cities (Harrill, 2003). At the same time, local communities in many tourism sectors are encountering the positive and negative impacts of tourism. To gain a positive attitude towards the development of the tourism industry and initiatives from local residents, governments and marketers are currently investigating the perception of the local communities towards the tourism industry (Harrill, 2004).

 

               Tourism planning should help a destination share its culture and provide attraction to tourists and satisfy residents at the same time. Therefore, understanding and realizing residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts are necessary. In this manner, the government and marketers can carry out efficient tourism planning for tourism development. At the same time, community tourism planning is also important because it provides a platform in which tourism experiences can be shared between tourists and local residents and induces their satisfaction towards tourism .If a community can carry out tourism planning, then they can hold positive attitudes towards the creation of a friendly atmosphere for visitors. If local communities are willing to participate in tourism planning towards future tourism, then they will hold a strong sense of and perception for tourism development planning and present a positive support for tourism development-related activities, which can increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the implementation of tourism planning (Inskeep, 1991).

 

THEORETICAL MODEL

 

Social Exchange Theory (SET) has been one of the most fully cited theories for studying residents’ perception and attitude in the tourism industry (Sharpley, 2014). Many scholars (Xu, 2015) studied residents’ attitudes towards and perceptions of tourism predominantly using SET compared with other theories. SET is a social psychological and sociological theory that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges among all parties. Furthermore, it is a general sociological theory concerned with the understanding of the exchanges of resources between individuals and groups in an interaction situation by Ap (1992). SET also describes an important consequence, that is, human relationships are influenced by the use of a subjective cost–benefit analysis and comparison of alternatives.

 

Harrill (2004) noted that researches use famous theories to study residents’ attitudes or perception towards the impacts of tourism development. These theories include community attachment, social exchange and growth-machine theories. In the tourism industry, residents’ perception is influenced by their understanding of tourism in terms of expected benefits and costs obtained and services they supply (Ap, 1992). Gursoy and Rutherford (2004) demonstrated that residents’ support for the tourism industry is positive when they realize or gain positive impacts. However, residents’ support for the tourism industry is negative when they realize or gain negative impacts. Andriotis and Vaughan (2003) discovered that economic, environmental and socio-cultural factors are important elements to SET, which will elucidate residents’ perception towards future tourism development. Researchers stated that SET is the most important theoretical contribution to the tourism industry. Specifically, SET is widely used for the research on residents’ attitude and perception (Fredline & Faulkner, 2000). According to SET, local residents tends to support tourism development when they realized that the economic, environmental and socio-cultural impacts are positive and that they can obtain more benefits from them. Notably, these impacts comprise extrinsic outcomes for destination residents.

 

               Studies that provide an appropriate structural model between residents’ destination image, perception of tourism impacts and support for event development remain lacking. Specifically, Turker (2013) considered the direct and indirect effects of tourism impacts and found that residents perceived a slightly negative impact and focused on major economic activities in the region. In addition, previous studies (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003) defined destination image is a mental construct influenced by the loss of information about a destination. However, this definition does not reflect support for the perception of place image for its residents. An adopted and theoretical model (Figure 1) suggests that residents’ destination image influences their perception of the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts of events, which in turn affect their level of support for event development (Stylidis, 2014). Residents’ destination image has been shown to have a direct effect on residents’ support for event development. At the same time, the study also provided a comprehensive understanding of residents’ destination image and filled the research gap in terms of residents’ support and perception of tourism impacts and destination image.(see figure 1).

 

METHODOLOGY

 

Study methodology providing a deep understanding of the residents’ perception of tourism impacts and destination image in event development in Macau in a natural setting that is sensitive the residents’ perception and attitude. Therefore, research adopted qualitative approach to collect data to present the commitment to a certain version of a naturalistic, interpretive approach to the subject matter and an ongoing critique of the politics and methods of post-positivism (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The descriptive research design aims to obtain five elements about interviewees, such as: ‘who’, ‘what’ and ‘where’ from single or multiple cases (Yin, 2010). Moreover, we focused on the nature of the research questions, complexities involved in event development in Macau and local perception of local destination image and tourism impacts. This study used in-depth interviews to obtain qualitative data. The responses were subsequently transcribed for accurate presentation. Open-ended questions were used, and data were analyzed using the grounded theory frame. The study used non-probability sampling to represent the entire population of interest and infer the possible generalization of the findings. The selection of responders is an important approach in obtaining rich information sources. Interviewees must be residents in Macau for more than one year and willing to participate in the interview. The study adopted snowball sampling to select potential candidates. Sampling the residents ensured that the answer would be verified. Residents were selected as the target respondents in Macau’s major communities. Hence, the questionnaire was completed using the back-translation method to ensure that the questions were comprehensible in English and Chinese. To maintain construct validity, the English and Chinese versions were compared to ensure that the translation was accurate and did not induce bias in the research.

 

The minimum sample size that is required to reach saturation and redundancy in grounded theory studies was 30 participants (Dworkin, 2012). A fact sheet provided to local residents for sharing more information to the participants. The interview took place in the local restaurants and library which provide a quiet area for interviewees feel free to share their comments. The data were summarized and organized according to the themes generated by the documentary review. Summaries of the interviews were also prepared to highlight the main concepts that emerged and set the context for selecting quotes from their comments, which were used as examples in the research report. The data analysis and coding were conducted in several stages. The generated codes were categorized and displayed in themed charts. Domain analysis was used to describe and analyze each theme separately. The coding results at different levels were compared to explore differences in opinions and suggestions.

 

DISCUSSION

 

               Thirty participants were interviewed in this study (Table 2). They were located in Macau peninsula. The age of the interviewees ranged from 18 to 75 years old and were distributed as follows: 26.7% (8 out of 30) were 18 to 23 years, 26.7% (8 out of 30) were 24 to 38 years, 23.3% (7 out of 30) were 39 to 52 years, and 23.3% (7 out of 30) were 53 above. Approximately 60% of the respondents (18 out of 30) were male and 40% (12 out of 30) were female. In terms of education level, 10% (3 out of 30) were bachelor’s degree holders; 46.7% (14 out of 30) were high school and primary school graduates; 16.7% (5 out of 30) were certificate, diploma or higher diploma degree holders; and 26.6% (8 out of 30) were master’s degree holders. Twenty-eight interviewees had attended local events, whereas two had not.

This study base on four key questions to examine locals their perception of support for event development.

1) What are your perceptions towards to event development in Macau?

2) What is the overall effect of event tourism on Macau’s image and the community?

3) What are the potential perceived impacts to Macau event development?

4) What is your recommendation for future event development and improvement of Macau from a tourism perspective?

               Interviewees need to response to the above four key questions and expressed their feeling about the potential image which may to the local community. Interviewees will highlight the potential impacts may cause to support event development in Macau.

 

MACAU RESIDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS EVENT DEVELOPMENT IN MACAU

 

Most respondents believe that tourism development relied on the gambling industry, because it was a key tourist attraction and largely contributed to tourism. The respondents believe that Macau lacks scenic spots. Though the service industry was an important industry in Macau, four young respondents said the service quality level in Macau was low, and service staff lack advanced knowledge in service quality. Two senior respondents also believe that tourism development resulted in a large number of visitors, especially low-quality group tours. However, one respondent believe that Macau had gathered many international events, making it an international event tourism destination. 

               Almost half of respondents hardly attended events in Macau despite events being a new industry. This situation included three reasons, namely, locals’ lack of interest in the event themes, lack of discount for locals and simply a lack of time. Moreover, unattractive event themes were the main reason residents do not attend events. However, four senior respondents argued that event themes were interesting, which offer a new form of leisure for families. Some respondents agreed that event development was supported by the government. Furthermore, several respondents considered the event industry’s reliance on the gambling industry and its benefit to other industries. Almost all respondents have a positive attitude towards event development in Macau, even though events result in crowding and congestion.

 

RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THE EFFECTS OF EVENT TOURISM ON DESTINATION IMAGE AND TOURISM IMPACTS IN THEIR COMMUNITY

 

All respondents stated that they have realised that tourism effect on destination image and tourism impacts in their community. Researchers relate the importance of proper image development to the overall success of a tourism destination (Chen & Kerstetter, 1999). Therefore, residents’ perception of destination image is a crucial issue for destination tourism in Macau. Only three negative impacts were stated by respondents, including environmental harm, increasing crimes and too much commercialisation. According to the respondents, event tourism may harm the environment because it can result in crowding, congestion and pollution brought about by the large number of visitors. Positive impacts included increased jobs, cultural exchange and entertainment. Event tourism will increase jobs because it can contribute to economic development, as stated by most respondents. In addition, young residents focus on cultural exchange with humanistic nature, whereas senior residents focus on gastronomy.

 

In the potential image of economic impacts, several job opportunities were stated by most respondents. The event industry can solve employment issues to some extent. In fact, it has provided numerous jobs opportunities to Macau residents. Respondents also stated issues such as industry innovation, government income and infrastructure.

 

Potential image of environmental impacts only included environmental destruction and noise. Respondents stated that the event industry can contribute to destroying the environment, such as crowding, congestion and pollution. However, events can bring economic benefit to residents. Locals also agree that the event industry causes noise.

 

               Most Macau residents have positive attitude towards event development in Macau. They support event development in Macau because of its positive economic and socio-cultural impacts despite its negative environmental impacts. Therefore, the government and practitioners should focus on negative environmental impacts and address the associated problems.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT FOR FUTURE DESTINATION IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

 

               More than half of the respondents (22 out of 30) stated that the government should focus on locals’ needs, such as job opportunities, improved social welfare and diverse events. Respondents’ answers reveal that local residents are concerned about benefits on the quality of life more than other issues, but they all have positive attitude and support towards the event business in Macau. Shim and Lee (2003) identified that the government expects accrued benefits to positively influence economic and environmental development along with residents’ support and enhancement of their quality of life. Thus, the government must fully understand and ensure locals’ need to enhance their quality of life.

 

               The youth also prefer to receive information about events via advanced and traditional approaches, and social media. Marketers and organizers should particularly focus on using WeChat and Weibo when promoting events because the youth will be the key target market of events. Thus, marketers and organizers must change traditional word-of-mouth promotion methods to social media to capture the youth.

              

               A total of 13.4% of interviewees (4 out of 30) said that the government should control logistic issues to avoid crowding. Crowding is that the main negative environmental impact perceived by local residents because the large number of visitors gathered in scenic spots, public transportation stations and even in communities make local residents feel crowded. Local interviewees tented to control visitors in communities and improve public transportation condition. Thus, the government and marketers must make proper tourism management planning to avoid inconvenience to local residents.

 

               A total of 13.4% of interviewees (4 out of 30) said that the government should educate residents and tourists regarding tourism development in the future. Their answers show that visitors’ social behavior should be managed to protect the environment and maintain the quiet living conditions of locals. Residents should also adopt a policy of courtesy and become good hosts especially because the local youth had serious complaints about the service industry. Thus, the government and marketers must make proper planning about training to enhance quality of service between residents and visitors.

 

                    NEW FRAMEWORK OF RESIDENTS’ IMAGE AND PERCEIVED IMPACTS FOR EVENT DEVELOPMENT IN MACAU

 

               Figure 2 shows residents’ image and perceived impacts for event development in Macau. Residents’ support for event development was influenced by perceived economic impacts, perceived socio-cultural impacts, perceived environmental impacts, perceived technological impacts and residents’ image. Science and technology is the foundation for rapid event development. Apart from exhibitors, visitors and designers can gain benefits via science and technology. However, residents’ quality of life would be influenced by science and technology. Positive technological impacts for locals would strengthen their support for the event business. Residents’ image also could impact perceived economic impacts, perceived socio-cultural impacts, perceived environmental impacts and perceived technological impacts.

Technological impact also relates to residents’ support for event development. Modern science and technology are becoming the dominant force towards the development of the event industry. It can not only improve the efficiency of exhibition activities, but also improve the quality of life of locals in hosting locations. Young locals also use mobile payments in Macau. This trend originated from Mainland visitors through event tourism. It was a convenience in daily life and resulted in numerous economic benefits. Previous studies were limited to social, economic and environmental impact. However, this study filled the gap by considering technological impact.

 

IMPLICATION FOR DESTINATION MARKETERS

 

This research discovered that environmental impact and environmental destruction are unique negative concern in residents’ perception. Hence, the government and practitioners should focus on this issue. Therefore, effective management strategies considering environment management should be made in future event development. This study identified that marketers need to adopt technology to capture the youth’s attention. The youth prefer to receive and use technology if it is interesting and convenient. In the event industry, young generation locals prefer simple and convenient social media when receiving information about events. The government and practitioners should replace the word-of-mouth approach with social media. At the same time, the government and marketers should focus on technological impacts towards locals, because these impacts would strengthen locals’ support for the event business.

This study also identified strong expectations of locals to satisfy their needs, provide numerous jobs and welfare to residents, balance locals’ need and event development. If the government handles the suggestion well, then residents would support future event development.

 

LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH

This study emerged from the related literature, which included the use of secondary data analysis and in-depth interviews. However, this study has several limitations. Firstly, its sample size was small. The sample size included only 30 participants. Secondly, the research employed convenience sampling in Fai Chi Kei and Iao Hon two small local communities. Thus, the results may vary from other communities in Macau. Therefore, the analysis that remaining parts of residents’ perception of other perspectives in tourism was drawn with these restrictions in mind.

 

Future studies should utilize different approaches to identify this issue and not only qualitative approaches. Sample size should also be enhanced and different communities. Furthermore, in-depth interviews on the perception of residents’ image and perceived impacts for event development should be taken.

Alhemoud, A.M., & Armstrong, E.G. (1996). Image of tourism attractions in Kuwait. Journal of Travel Research, 34(4), 76-80.

Andereck, K.L. (1995). Environmental consequences of tourism: A review of recent research. In Linking tourism, the environment, and sustainability. Annual Meeting of the National Recreation and Park Association 77-81, General Technical Report No. INT-GTR-323.

Andereck, K.L., Valentine, K.M., Knopf, R.C. & Vogt, C.A. (2005). Residents perceptions of community tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 1056-1076.

Andereck, A. & McGehee,N. (2008). The attitudes of community residents towards tourism. Tourism , Recreation and Sustainability , 236-258.

Andriotis, K. &Vaughan, R.D. (2003). Urban residents attitudes toward tourism development: The case of crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42(2), 172-185.

Ap, J. (1992). Residents perceptions on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(4), 665-690.

Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K.W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868-897.

Balduck, Maes & Buelens (2011). The Social Impact of the Tour de France: Comparisons of Residents Pre- and Post-event Perceptions. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11, 91-113.

Baloglu, S.(2001). Image variation of Turkey by familiarity index: Informational and experiential dimensions. Tourism Management , 22(2),127-133.

Beerli, A. & Martin, J. (2004). Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 657-681.

Bello, F.G. (2018). Enhancing community participation in tourism planning associated with protected areas in developing countries: Lessons from Malawi. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 18 (3) 309-320.

Bigne, J.E., Sanchez, M.I., & Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation variables and after-purchase behavior: Inter-relationship. Tourism Management, 22(6), 607-616.

Boutar, G. & MeLeod, Paul (1993). Residents perceptions on impact of the America's Cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 571-582.

Brunt & Courtney (1999). Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts. Annals of Tourism Research. 26, (3), 493-515.

Butler, R.W. (2010). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5-12.

Carmichael, B.A. (2000). A matrix model for resident attitudes and behaviours in a rapidly changing tourist area. Tourism Management, 21(6), 601-611.

Chen, P.J., & Kerstetter, D.L. (1999). International students’ image of rural pennsylvania as a travel destination. Journal of Travel Research, 37(3), 256-266.

Chen, S. (2011). Residents’ Perceptions of the Impact of Major Annual Tourism Events in Macao: Cluster Analysis. Journal of convention and event tourism. 12,(2).

Crompton, J.L. (1979). An Assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination and the influence of geographical location upon that image. Journal of Travel Research, 17(1): 18-23.

Davis, D., Allen, J., & Cosenza, R.M. (1988). Segmenting local residents by their attitudes, interests, and opinions toward tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 27(2), 2-8.

Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y. (2003). The landscape of qualitative research: Theories and issues (2nd ed). London: Sage Publications.

Derret, R. (2011). Festivals, events and the destination. In I. Yeoman, M. Robertson, J. Ali-Knight, S. Drummond, & U. McMahon-Beattie (Eds.), Festival and events management an international arts and cultural perspective, 32-50. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

DESC, Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx

DESC, Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx

DESC, Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx

Diedrich , A & Garcia-Buades, E. (2009) . Local perceptions of tourism as indicators of destination decline. Tourism Management 30 (2009) 512–521

Doxey, G. (1975r). Visitor-resident interaction in tourist destinations: inferences from empirical research in Barbados, West Indies and Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. In Symposium on the Planning and Development of the Tourist Industry in the ECC Region, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, 8-11.

Dworkin, S. (2012). Sample size qualitative studies using in-depth interviews. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41,1319-1320.

Echtner, C.M., & Ritchie, J.B. (1991). The meaning and measurement of destination image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(2), 2-12.

Echtner, C.M., & Ritchie, J.R.B. (1993). The measurement of destination image: An empirical assesment. Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3-13.

Echtner, C.M., & Ritchie, J.R.B. (2003). The meaning and measurement of destination image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(1), 37-48.

Fayeye, P & Crompton, J. (1991). Image difference between perspectives first time and repeat visitors to the Low Rio Grande Valley .Journal of Travel Research , 30:10 ,9-16.

Fredline, E., & Faulkner, B. (2000). Host community reactions: A cluster analysis. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 763-784.

Fredline, L., Jago, L., & Deery, M. (2003). The development of a generic scale to measure the social impacts of events. Event Management, 8(1), 23-37.

Frosh, S. (2006). For and against psychoanalysis (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Gartner, W.C. (1994). Image formation process. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 2(2-3), 191-216.

Getz, D. (1991). Festivals, special events and tourism, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Getz, D. (1997). Event management and event tourism, New York: Cognizant Communication.

Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management, 29(3), 403-428.

Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management, 29(3), 403-428.

Gibson, C., & Davidson, D. (2004). Tamworth, Australia’s country music capital: place marketing, rurality, and resident reactions. Journal of Rural Studies, 20(4),     387-404.

Girard, T.C., & Gartner W.C. (1993). Host community perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(4), 685-700.

Gunn, C. (1997). Vacationscape: Developing tourist areas (3rd ed.). United States of America: Taylor and Francis.

Gursoy, D., & Rutherford, D.G. (2004). Host attitudes toward tourism: An improved structural model. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 495-516.

Harrill, R., & Potts, T.D. (2003). Tourism planning in historic districts: Attitudes toward tourism development in charleston. Journal of the American Planning Association, 69(3), 233-244.

Harrill, R. (2004). Residents' attitudes toward tourism development: A literature review with implications for tourism planning. Journal of Planning Literature,  18(3), 251-266.

Henkel, R., Henkel, P., Agrusa, W., Agrusa, J., & Tanner, J. (2006). Thailand as a tourist destination: Perceptions of international visitors and Thai residents. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3), 269-287.

Hirschman, E.C., & Holbrook, M.B. (1982). Hedonic consumption: c\emerging\concepts, methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101.

Hsieh, H.F., & Shannon, S.E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288.

Hunt, J.D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourist development. Journal of Travel Research, 13(3): 1-7.

Jamal, T.B., Stanley, M.S., & Thomas, L.H. (2002). Beyond labels: Pragmatic planning in multi stakeholder tourism environmental conflicts. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 22(2), 164-177.

Jurowski, C., & Gursoy, D. (2004). Distance effects on residents' attitudes toward tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2), 296-312.

Keogh, B. (1990). Public participation on community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 17(3), 449-465.

Konstantaki, M., & Wickens, E. (2010). Residents' perception of environmental and security issues at the 2012 London Olympic Games. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 15(4), 337-357.

Lee, T.H. (2013). Influence analysis of community resident support for sustainable tourism development. Tourism Management, 34, 37-46.

Long, P.T., Perdue, R.R., & Allen, L. (1990). Rural resident tourism perceptions and attitudes by community level of tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 28(3), 3-9.

Macao Government Tourist Office. (2018). MGTO Annual Press Conference: To build a world center of tourism and leisure and promote quality tourism New tourism theme and image to be created to keep pace with the new era. Accessed on: August 15,2018. Available online at: http://industry.Macaotourism.gov.mo/en/pressroom/index.php?page_id=172&id=2356

MacKay, K. & Fesenmaier, D.( 2000). An exploration of cross-cultural destination image assessment. Journal of Travel Research. 38(4), 417-423.

Marcouiller, D.W. (1997). Toward integrative tourism planning in rural America. Journal of Planning Literature, 11(3), 337-357.

Mayo, E.J. (1973). Regional images and regional travel behaviour. The Travel Research Association Fourth Annual Conference Proceedings. Sun Valley: Idaho.

McCartney, G. (2005). The impact of the 50th Macao Grand Prix on Macao’s destination image. International Journal of Event Management Research, 1(1), 46-65.

MccCartney, G.(2016) Play the cards, roll the dice - the integration of casinos within Asian tourism destination development strategy. UNLV Gaming Research & Review Journal, 20(2), 119-139.

 Merrilees, B., Miller, D., & Herington, C. (2009). Antecedents of residents’ city brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research, 62(3), 362-367.

Morgan, N. (2012). Time for “mindful” destination management and marketing. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 1(1-2), 8-9.

Moutinho, L. (1993). Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Journal of Marketing, 21(10), 5-44.

Nunkoo, R., & Gursoy, D. (2012). Residents' support for tourism: An identity perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(1), 243-268.

Padin. C. (2010). A sustainable tourism planning model: Components and relationships. European Business Review, 231-260.

Morgan, N. (1996). Reconstruing place image: A case study of its role in destination market research. Tourism Management, 17(4), 287-294.

Sharpley, R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: A review of the research. Tourism Management, 42, 37-49.

Shim, W.S., & Lee, Y.T. (2003). Residents’ perceptions of government involvement impact and their attitudes toward government driven tourism development. International Journal of Tourism Sciences, 3(2), 133-150.

Silvers, J.R. (2004). Professional event coordination 62. USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Stabler, M.J. (1995). The image of destination regions: Theoretical and empirical aspects. In B. Goodall, & G. Ashworth (Eds.), Marketing in tourism industry: The promotion of destination regions, pp:  133-159.

Stylidis, D., Biran, A., Sit, J., & Szivas, E.M. (2016). Residents’ support for tourism development: The role of residents place image and perceived tourism impacts. Tourism Management, 45, 260-274.

Taormina ,R.J. & Kuok, A.C.H. (2009). Factors related to casino dealer burnout and turnover intention in Macau: Implications for casino management, 9(3)

Tassiopoulos, D., & Johnson, D. (2009). Social impacts of events. In J. Musgrave, & R. Raj (Eds.), Event management and sustainability. USA: CAB International, pp: 76.

Walmsley, D.J., & Young, M. (1998). Evaluative images and tourism: The use of personal constructs to describe the structure of destination images. Journal of Travel Research, 36(3), 65-69.

Wong, A. & Rosenbaum, M. (2012). Beyond hardcore gambling: Understanding why mainland Chinese visit casinos in Macau. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36 (1), 32-51.

Xu, J., Hui, C.K.T., & Chan, E.A.H. (2015). Hong Kong’s destination image in the eyes of residents. Journal of China Tourism Research, 11(4), 440-460.

Yen, Chang-Hua & Croy,W. Glen (2016). Film tourism: Celebrity involvement, celebrity worship and destination image. Current Issues in Tourism, 19,(10), 1027-1044.

Yin, R. K. (2010). Case study research: Design and methods. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 44(1), 108.

Download PDF View PDF