94064
Views & Citations93064
Likes & Shares
Skin
reflects origin, lifestyle, age and state of health. Skin color, tone and
evenness, pigmentation, as well as skin surface characteristics are signs of
skin’s health. The cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry offers a vast armamentarium
of skin care products and procedures to clean, soothe, restore, reinforce,
protect and to treat our skin and hence to keep it in “good condition”. Skin
care products are readily available in daily life and they play a major role in
health and nursing care. The promotion of skin care products including their
claims are often based on an effect (e.g. moisturizing, antioxidant), evoked by
an active (e.g. urea, tocopherol) that is delivered through a vehicle (e.g.
lotion) that relies on a specific technology (e.g. nanotechnology). In
addition, “without” claims (e.g. without parabens) often accompany nowadays
promotions. Today, modern skin care includes cleansing, soothing, restoring,
reinforcing and protecting. With increasing age, the emphasis on skin care is
changing. The importance of soothing, restoring, reinforcing increases and
cleansing should be executed with particular care. The character of skin care
shifts from more cosmetic objectives smooth, healthy looking skin to more
therapeutic and preventive objectives soothing, restoring, reinforcing and
protecting stressed skin. Even though skin care and skin protection play an
important role throughout lifetime the skin areas in primary need of care and
protection also change. In younger years, environmental factors (e.g. UV
radiation) are of primary importance whereas in advanced years, age-related
factors (e.g. prolonged exposure to various sources of moisture, including
urine or feces, perspiration, wound exudate, and their contents) become more important.
Subsequently the skin areas in need of care and protection also change
initially skin areas (e.g. face, arms and legs) exposed to the external
environment and later enclosed skin areas (e.g. skin folds, perianal,
perigenital skin, groin, feet) become the vulnerable zones (hot spots). Ageing
per se changes the skin structure and function across the life course
increasing its susceptibility to numerous clinically relevant skin problems
(e.g. xerosis cutis). Skin diseases (e.g. bacterial/fungal infections),
accumulating effects of systemic diseases (e.g. diabetes mellitus, renal
insufficiency) or pharmacotherapies (e.g. cancer therapies) also necessitate
special skin care.
Keywords: Skin care, Creams, Emollients, Moisturizers, Emulsions
Abbreviations: IPM: Isopropyl
Myristate; AD: Atopic Dermatitis; SLS: Sodium Lauryl Sulfate; EPA: Environmental
Protection Agency; TEA: Triethanolamine; CIR: Cosmetic Ingredient Review; LA: Linoleic
acid; SCI: Sodium Cocoyl Isethionate; SDS: Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate; PEGs: Polyethylene
Glycols; SSO: Sorbitan Sesquioleate; GA: Glycolic Acid; RAL: Retinaldehyde; SSR:
Solar Simulated Radiation; AHA: Alpha-Hydroxy Acids; BHA: Beta Hydroxy Acid;
ROS: Reactive Oxygen Species; ROM: Range of Motion; INCI: International
Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients; SPF: Sun Protection Factor; HMPs: Hydrophobically
Modified Polymers; NLRs: Nucleotide Binding Domain and Leucine Rich Repeat
Containing Proteins; NLRC4: NLR Family CARD Domain Containing 4; AIM2: Absent
in Melanoma 2; NHEK: Normal Human Epidermal Keratinocytes; SkBF: Skin Blood
Flow; TEWL: Transepidermal Water Loss; NMF: Natural Moisturizing Factors
BACKGROUND
Until the beginning of the 1900s, no clear
difference existed between active and inactive components in dermatological and
cosmetic preparations. Later, it became possible to assign specific therapeutic
effects to certain chemical substances, and the concept of vehicle, i.e., a
rather inactive carrier substance, started to be developed. Nowadays,
formulations are mixtures of components that basically include one or more
vehicles and one or more active principles. The efficacy of dermatological and
cosmetic products is influenced by the type of vehicle and active principles.
In general, formulations will work if the active ingredients penetrate into the
epidermis. Hence, the correct selection of a suitable vehicle plays an
important role during the development of a product. Pharmaceutical preparations
are aimed at obtaining a curative effect. In these cases, the role of the
vehicle is primarily to allow the delivery of the active principles to the site
of application. Cosmetic formulations do not contain strictly curative drugs,
but their purpose is rather to help skin homeostasis and prevent degenerative
processes. As we have seen, a clear boundary between the medical and cosmetic
fields cannot be easily traced, while the marked tendency of cosmetic industries
to develop products containing pharmaceutically active principles has led to
the introduction of the concept of cosmeceuticals. This term indicates
cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids aimed at enhancing the beauty of the skin by
means of ingredients that modify skin functionality or provide additional
health-related function or benefit.
The outer layer of the epidermis, the
external layer of human skin, is made up primarily of corneocytes which provide
a barrier function. Underlying the corneocytes are viable keratinocytes, which
migrate outward and terminally differentiate to become corneocytes. The
epidermis is organized into extensions called rete ridges that project between
dermal papille (pink) into the underlying connective tissue. Underlying the
epidermis is the dermis, which is primarily made up of collagen, elastin
fibers, and other extracellular matrix components. Collagen and elastin fibers
are synthesized by fibroblasts to provide tensile strength, firmness, and
elasticity to the skin. The innermost layer of the skin, the hypodermis, is
composed largely of fat cells, which helps provide structure to the skin. Blood
capillaries, lymph vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles and
lamellar bodies lie within the dermis and hypodermis (Figure 1).
INTRODUCTION
Now, a variety of skincare products are available for almost any beauty
concern one can have, including body washes, gels, lotions, exfoliants,
moisturizers, toners and sun protection. There is mainly a focus on helping
skin from the inside out. The existence of the FDA keeps known toxic
ingredients from being used, though many skincare products still do
unfortunately have side effects. From time immemorial creams as, topical
preparations are considered an important part of cosmetic products. Creams may
be considered pharmaceutical products as even cosmetic creams are based on
techniques developed by pharmacy and un-medicated creams are highly used in a
variety of skin conditions in ancient times, creams were simply prepared by
mixing of two or more ingredients using water as the solvent. With the
advancement in technology, newer methods are used for formulation of creams.
These semisolid preparations are elegant to use by the public and society. They
show versatility in their functions. Creams can be applied to any part of the
body with ease. It is convenient to use cream by all the age group of people.
Although it may be equally well applied to non-aqueous products such as
wax-solvent based mascaras, liquid eye shadows and ointments. If an emulsion is
sufficiently low viscosity to be pourable (flow under influence of gravity
alone) is referred to as lotion. Creams are emulsions of oil and water. In
coming future, more advanced technologies and methods will be used for
preparation, formulation and evaluation of creams. Also, the demand of herbal
constituents-based creams is increasing day by day.
SKIN CARE PROCEDURES AND SKIN CARE PRODUCTS
The information of skin
care procedures is plentiful but little scientifically documented and the
number of products available for cleansing, soothing, restoring, reinforcing
and protecting is of an almost infinite variety. Nonetheless their
functionalities may be described as:
·
Removal of dirt, sebum, microorganisms,
exfoliated corneocytes and other non-wanted substances from the skin.
·
Reduction of unpleasant skin symptoms
(e.g. pruritus, burning, odor).
·
Restoration of (sub-clinically) damaged
skin (e.g. dry and inflamed skin).
·
Reinforcement of undamaged but
vulnerable skin (e.g. skin surface pH balance, germ reduction).
·
Protection of damaged, undamaged and
vulnerable skin from various noxious factors.
·
Providing a pleasant skin feel
(well-being) [1].
Maintaining the functional integrity of the stratum
corneum
It has been recognized for approximately 7
decades that the stratum corneum exhibits biological properties that contribute
directly to maintaining and sustaining healthy skin. Continued basic science
and clinical research coupled with keen clinical observation has led to more
recent recognition and general acceptance that the stratum corneum completes
many vital “barrier” tasks, including but not limited to regulating epidermal
water content and the magnitude of water loss; mitigating exogenous oxidants that
can damage components of skin via an innate antioxidant system; preventing or
limiting cutaneous infection via multiple antimicrobial peptides; responding
via innate immune mechanisms to “cutaneous invaders” of many origins, including
microbes, true allergens, and other antigens; and protecting its neighboring
cutaneous cells and structures that lie beneath from damaging effects of
ultraviolet radiation. Additionally, specific abnormalities of the stratum
corneum (Figure 2) are associated
with the clinical expression of certain disease states [2].
The corneocytes represent the bricks and the
intercellular lamellar lipid membrane represents the mortar. Corneocytes
comprise primarily keratin macrofibrils, are protected externally by a
cornified cell envelope, and are held together by corneodesmosomes. The
intercellular lamellar lipid membrane is primarily composed of ceramides,
cholesterol, and fatty acids. A mixture of multiple small hygroscopic compounds
presents within corneocytes, referred to collectively as natural moisturizing
factor (NMF), plays a vital role in the physiological maintenance of stratum
corneum hydration.
The functionality of the skin care products
ranges from mono-functional, e.g. protecting barrier creams to poly-functional,
e.g. soothing and restoring cleansers. They unfold their functionality as
leave-on products (e.g. moisturizing or skin barrier products), or as rinse-off
products (e.g. cleansers). Skin care procedures like washing/drying and the
application of leave-on products should be as benign as possible. The unduly
removal of natural skin component (e.g. lipids), prolonged exposure to water
(e.g. long-term immersion in full-baths), a (repeated) disruption of the
physiological skin surface pH and excessive and/or prolonged occlusion of the
skin should be avoided. However, the epidermal acidification is known to be
fragile and it is commonly accepted that cosmetic products, especially soaps
and skin cleansing products, can induce significant changes in skin surface pH.
The skin pH recovery needs time up to several hours before it can reach the
physiological level. Skin care delivered to improve, e.g. the outcome of an eczema
therapy or to reduce, e.g. the adverse effects of a cancer therapy are often
termed as adjuvant skin care. Nonetheless, adjuvant or the above described
classic preventive skin care pursues the similar goals. Moisturizing prevents
and alleviates skin irritation, soothing the skin by slowing the evaporation of
water. Many liquid face cleansers also moisturize, which may be all that is
needed for a patient with oily skin. Protection from sun and environmental
damage is important for all patients. While sunscreens are often irritants, the
best options for young, oily, acne-prone skin tend to have a water or light
liquid base. Moisturizing sunscreens are appropriate for patients with dry,
sun-damaged skin, as well as those who wear makeup, have other skin diseases,
or are easily irritated by products [3-6].
TYPES OF SKIN CREAMS
They are
divided into two types: oil-in-water (O/W) creams which are composed of small
droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous phase, and water-in-oil (W/O) creams
which are composed of small droplets of water dispersed in a continuous oily
phase. Whether the aqueous or the oil phase becomes the dispersed phase depends
primarily on the emulsifying agent used and the relative amounts of the two
liquid phases. Hence, an emulsion in which the oil is dispersed as droplets
throughout the aqueous phase is termed an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. When
water is the dispersed phase and oil as the dispersion medium, the emulsion is
of the water-in-oil (W/O) type. Oil-in-water creams are more comfortable and
cosmetically acceptable as they are less greasy and more easily washed off
using water. Water-in-oil creams are more difficult to handle but many drugs
which are incorporated into creams are hydrophobic and will be released more
readily from a water-in-oil cream than an oil-in-water cream. Water-in-oil
creams are also more moisturizing as they provide an oily barrier which reduces
water loss from the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin. It is important for pharmacists to know the
type of emulsion they have prepared or are dealing with, because this can
affect its properties and performance. Unfortunately, the several methods
available can give incorrect results, so the type of emulsion determined by one
method should always be confirmed by means of a second method [7,8]. (Table 1).
Cleansing creams
In earliest times, cleansing was
done by using a piece of bone or stone to scrape the skin. Later civilizations
used materials of plant origin along with water for cleansing. Many different
civilizations can be given credit for discovering soap. The earliest mention of
the soap making process can be found in Sumerian clay tablets dating to ca.
2000 BC. By 600 BC, tree ash and animal fat had been used by the Phoenicians to
prepare soap. The first cosmetic cleansing cream to be manufactured on an
industrial scale was cold cream, an emulsion made with mineral or almond oil along
with beeswax, borax and water. A second type of cleanser was introduced around
1920. It was made solely from oils and waxes, so was water-free (anhydrous) and
was not an emulsion. Cleansers of this type were designed to melt or liquefy
when applied to the skin – they were thixotropic – which is why they were
referred to as liquefying cleansing creams. Skin permeability was found to
depend very strongly on temperature and less strongly on the duration of
heating. The pores of the skin are like little thermostats; they expand with
heat and contract with cold. Now when a cream containing a high percentage of
water is applied to the skin it is obvious that the pores will at once contract
and prevent the deep penetration which is essential if the skin is to be
thoroughly cleansed. Some chemists who favor cold cream type cleansers argue
that such a reaction is momentary and that with continued rubbing the skin
warms up and the pores open again. But they overlook the simple fact that water
begins to evaporate immediately upon exposure and in evaporating it abstracts
heat from the skin, which causes the pores to contract
again. Many of the environmental impurities and cosmetic products are not water
soluble and so washing the skin with simple water would not be sufficient to
remove them. Substances capable of emulsifying them into finer particles are to
be used for making these fat-soluble impurities water soluble. Herein,
cleansers fit into the picture. Skin cleansers are surface—active substances
(i.e., emulsifiers/detergents/surfactants/soaps) that lower the surface tension
on the skin and remove dirt, sebum, oil from cosmetic products, microorganisms
and exfoliated corneum cells in an
emulsified form. Careful face washing helps to improve and prevent acne; however, intensive washing has a risk of inducing skin barrier
impairment and dry skin, especially in sensitive skin. An ideal cleanser should
do all these without damaging or irritating the skin, on the contrary it should
try to keep the skin surface moist. With the advent of advanced technologies,
newer cleansers are now being manufactured which are mild, provide moisturizing
benefits and can be easily washed off. The combined use of a facial skin
cleanser and moisturizers is safe and effective for the care of acne in
post-adolescent women with sensitive skin. The key ingredients in cleansing
creams, which are also known as cold creams, are usually petrolatum, mineral
oil, waxes and water. Many cleansing creams also contain emulsifiers, which
prevent the ingredients of the cream from separating into layers. It can
moisturize skin and remove dirt, sweat, make-up at the same time. The layers of
make-up, dust and sweat remain as a layer on the face and prevent the skin from
breathing this may eventually lead to wrinkles and dullness. With their mild
and effective action, cleansing creams now days have become a beneficial
approach to healthy skin care (Table 2)
[10-16].
There is strong evidence that mineral oil
hydrocarbons are the greatest contaminant of the human body, amounting to
approximately 1 g per person. Possible routes of contamination include air
inhalation, food intake and dermal absorption. The present study aims to
identify the most relevant sources of mineral oil contamination [20].
Petrolatum is thought to be occlusive, thereby blocking transcutaneous water
loss and trapping water under the skin's surface [21]. Petrolatum is a common
moisturizer (Discussed in detail in often used in the prevention of skin
infections after ambulatory surgeries and as a maintenance therapy of atopic
dermatitis (AD) [22]. Common ingredients in emollients include petroleum
products, glycerin, fatty acids and plant oils. An ideal emollient should
contain a combination of occlusive agents to slow down water loss, humectants to
increase capacity to withhold moisture and lubricants to reduce friction
against skin [25]. The exotic fats used in skin care are known to exhibit their
effects through restoration of a sufficient layer of skin lipids and skin
elasticity, boost natural skin regeneration and increased skin hydration by
forming an inert, epicutaneous occlusive membrane. Besides these facts, mango
butter which is one of several exotic fats is viewed as an ingenious
replacement for cocoa butter, mineral and petroleum-based emollients because of
its appreciable contents which are very important as source of skin active
ingredients [26]. Isopropyl myristate is a non-greasy emollient that is
absorbed readily by the skin. It is used as a component of semisolid bases and
as a solvent for many substances applied topically [18]. IPM, the isopropyl
ester of myristic acid, is used in cosmetics as a substitute for natural oils
because it has excellent spreading properties and is absorbed easily into the
skin. In many topical and transdermal preparations, IPM is also used as a
co-solvent with skin penetration enhancement properties of active ingredients
[27]. Polysorbate20 is a non-ionic surfactant and emulsifier derived from
sorbitan monolaurate, and is distinguished from the other members in the
polysorbate range by the length of the polyoxyethylene chain and the fatty acid
ester moiety. Due to non-toxic nature, it is used as a wetting agent in
flavored mouth drops such as Ice Drops, helping to provide a spreading feeling
to other ingredients like SD alcohol and mint flavor [29,30]. Glycerin is
widely used in cosmetics and well as in pharmaceutical formulations, mainly as
humectant. In vitro studies have
shown glycerin to prevent crystallization of stratum corneum model lipid
mixture at low room humidity (Figure 3).
Ten days treatment of normal skin with 20% glycerin significantly increased
skin corneometer values, indicating an increased hydration [31].
A humectant attracts and retains the moisture
in the air nearby via absorption, drawing the water vapor into or beneath the
organism's or object's surface. Much
more is now known about the epidermis, and in particular, the stratum corneum.
The “bricks and mortar” model suggests that its role is as an active membrane.
Loss of intercellular lipids, i.e., the ceramides, cholesterol and fatty acids
that form the bilayers, damages the water-barrier function. The stratum corneum
then calls into action repair mechanisms. Scientifically, the moisturizing
treatment involves a 4-step process: (a) Repairing the skin barrier (b)
Increasing water content (c) Reducing TEWL (d) Restoring the lipid barriers’
ability to attract, hold and redistribute water.
The intended application of detergents and
cleaners should not result in direct contact with product ingredients; however,
misuse of the product could potentially cause dermal (skin and ocular) or
inhalation exposure. Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) enters and maintains residual
levels in the heart, the liver, the lungs and the brain from skin contact. SLS
is cited as causing severe eye damage and blindness. A second erroneous ocular
health claim made about SLS is its link to cataract formation [32,34]. For
cleaning and industrial uses, it is monitored by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Sodium cocosulfate, made from coconut oil, can be used as a
replacement for SLS in your beauty product recipes [35]. Recent studies suggest
that coconut oil can be a useful surfactant when combined with Yucca schidigera extract [36]. The
polysorbates are amphipathic, nonionic surfactants composed of fatty acid
esters of polyoxyethylene sorbitan being polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate
for polysorbate 20 and polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate for polysorbate 80.
The polysorbates used in the formulation of biopharmaceuticals are
mixtures of different fatty acid esters with the monolaurate fraction of
polysorbate 20 making up only 40-60% of the mixture and the monooleate fraction
of polysorbate 80 making up >58% of the mixture [37]. The Cosmetic
Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel assessed the safety of 39 polyether
lanolin ingredients as used in cosmetics. The Panel concluded that these
polyether lanolin ingredients are safe in the practices of use and
concentration as given in this safety assessment [38]. Nasrollahi et al. [39]
revealed that Linoleic acid (LA) containing w/o emulsion exhibited
erythema-reducing effects [39]. Sodium cocoyl isethionate (SCI) is an important
surfactant ingredient in mild, syndet (synthetic detergent) cleansing bars. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that SCI is mild and less
damaging to the skin barrier than soaps and surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) [40]. The Cosmetic
Ingredient Review Expert Panel assessed the safety of triethanolamine (TEA) and
31 related TEA-containing ingredients as used in cosmetics. The TEA is reported
to function as a surfactant or pH adjuster; the related TEA-containing ingredients
included in this safety assessment are reported to function as surfactants and
hair- or skin-conditioning agents. The exception is TEA-sorbate, which is
reported to function as a preservative. The panel concluded that TEA and
related TEA-containing ingredients named in this report are safe as used when
formulated to be nonirritating. These ingredients should not be used in
cosmetic products in which N-nitroso compounds can be formed [41]. A cleansing
cream or lotion is spread onto the skin, using the fingertips, and massaged
onto the surface. This action serves to loosen and suspend the grime and soil
in the emulsion. A subsequent wipe with a tissue or cotton wool pad removes the
majority of the applied cleansing emulsion and with it the skin soil, grime or
makeup. The cream should have a medium-to-high percentage oil phase and be
easily spreadable, should not “rub in” and should not irritate the skin. In
addition, if it can leave a residual emollient film on the skin, so much the
better [99]. Surfactants in skin cleansers interact with the skin in several
manners. In addition to the desired benefit of providing skin hygiene,
surfactants also extract skin components during cleansing and remain in the SC
after rinsing. These side effects disrupt SC structure and degrade its barrier
properties. Hydrophobically modified polymers (HMPs) have
been introduced to create skin compatible cleansing systems. At the presence of
HMP, surfactants assemble into larger, more stable structures. These structures
are less likely to penetrate the skin, thereby resulting in less aggressive
cleansers and the integrity of the skin barrier is maintained. By creating
these large polymer/surfactant complexes, the cleanser becomes less aggressive.
In these HMP/surfactant systems, because less surfactant enters the SC, there
is less inflammation and therefore the skin barrier is less disturbed [146] (Figure 4).
The legendary Roman Holiday actress once
famously said, “I owe 50% of my beauty to my mother and the other 50% to Erno
Laszlo.” Erno Laszlo, a pioneer in 20th Century skin care, believed
beautiful skin was no miracle. He analyzed women's (and men's) skin giving them
precise techniques for their personal cleansing and prescribed the exact
products for their particular skin type and concern. The backbone of any
cosmeceutical skin care regimen is facial cleansing and moisturizing.
Moisturizers create the illusion of smooth, soft skin by placing a temporary
film over the skin surface or by imparting a transient hydration benefit that
does not clinically improve the quality or appearance of skin. Cleansing,
aggressive exfoliation and sebum reduction
in the absence of a traditional moisturizer safely and effectively improved
multiple clinical endpoints of photo aged skin.
Cold cream
The invention
of cold cream is credited to Galen, a physician in the second century from
Greece. This cold cream is thick and softens when it touches the skin. It is
perfect for dry skin on elbow, feet and knees and also perfect for natural ways
of removing makeup and to avoid eczema in dry parts of your body. The
combination of fats and water in this product help moisturize – the cream gets
its name because it's cold to the touch – with people using it to soften their
skin, soothe sunburns and protect faces from wintry weather, too. The emulsion
is of a “water in oil” type unlike the “oil in water” type emulsion of
vanishing cream, so-called because it seems to disappear when applied on skin.
Lubricating creams, night creams or massage creams are a type of cold cream
with the addition of lanolin (wool fat) and its derivatives. The name “cold
cream” derives from the cooling feeling that the cream leaves on the skin. Cold
creams were usually made as water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. After the creams are
applied to the skin much of the water evaporates leaving the remaining oil to
act as a solvent which cleanses the skin of cosmetics and other grime. There
may also be some surfactant activity. Some chemists suggested that as the water
evaporated it cooled the skin which is why the creams are called ‘cold cream’.
An alternative explanation is that in the days before mineral oil or petrolatum
was used, the creams needed to be stored in a cool place to stop them going
rancid. This made them cold to the touch and so gave them their name. The first
cold cream has been attributed to the Roman physician Galen (C.E. 150) who
reputedly made a primitive emulsion by mixing water with molten beeswax and
olive oil. It was laborious to make – requiring a great deal of mixing – and
tended to separate on standing. However, the formulation persisted – generally
using rose-water and/or oil of roses as a perfume – and was included in the
first edition of the ‘Pharmacopœa Londinensis’ in 1618. Vegetable oils like
almond oil are liable to deteriorate when they are mixed with water, so early
forms were not long-lasting. Their short shelf life meant that cold creams were
usually made up at home or purchased in small quantities, freshly made up by a
local pharmacist, chemist or druggist. Borax-beeswax cold creams were white;
opaque had a high luster and spread easily on the skin, but the use of almond
oil still limited the shelf life of the cream. When borax-beeswax cold creams
were made with petrolatum and mineral oil rather than almond oil, cold creams
were produced that were stable, cheap to produce and had a long shelf life.
This made borax-beeswax cold creams ideal preparations for industrial manufacture
and distribution. Cold creams that contained a high percentage of mineral oil
(liquid paraffin) or petrolatum were regarded primarily as cleansers, to be
spread on thickly, then removed with a cloth or tissues. However, depending on
the formulation, they could be used for a variety of purposes and were often
advertised as beauty creams or night creams. City air in most large western
cities was a good deal grimier than it is today. Dust, soot and other
particulate matter collected on the face, making it an enduring problem. Early
advertisements for cold cream stressed the need to “cleanse your skin of all
the dirt which lodges in the pores through the day, and which, more than
anything else, injures the skin”. It was also suggested that the cream be used
at night to give it additional time to act. Cold creams were widely used in the
theatrical trades to remove greasepaint with a number of suppliers producing
products labeled as Theatrical Cold Cream. As the use of street make-up
increased, cold creams were also promoted as a way to remove face powder,
lipstick, rouge, foundation and other forms of personal make-up. Cold creams
formed the basis of early beauty regimes developed by Pond’s, Elizabeth Arden,
Helena Rubinstein and others. By establishing a daily regime, cosmetic
companies hoped they would increase the usage of their creams and widen
consumer consumption to entire product lines. Guidance from beauty authorities
saw many women adopt the practice of applying cold cream before sleep to remove
the dirt, grime and cosmetics of the day. It cleansed the skin and, if not
removed with soap and water, left a thin film with moisturizing properties. If
it was doing something else while you slept, so much the better. One wonders,
for example, how many women discovered that leaving it liberally on their face
when they retired, helped them avoid the ‘ministrations’ of their husbands,
enabling them to get a night of uninterrupted sleep. The all-purpose nature of
cold cream, which had been its strength, proved to be its weakness. The
recognition of different skin types and skin conditions along with the
proliferation of skin creams containing ‘beneficial additives’ saw the need for
an all-purpose skin cream decline. This fracturing of the commercial skin-care
market which began with the introduction of stearate (vanishing) creams in
1892, picked up pace in the 1920s and 1930s and eroded the prestige of cold
creams and pushed them increasingly into the low-end of the skin-care market.
Although the use of cold creams has declined, they are still available.
However, when more recent products are compared to original formulations marked
differences are evident, primarily in the replacement of borax with modern
surfactants (Figure 5) [42-50].
Cold cream is
an emulsion of water and certain fats, usually including beeswax and various
scent agents, designed to smooth skin and remove makeup. Beeswax itself suffers
from 2 disadvantages as an ingredient in skin creams. The first of this is that
it has a distinctive smell which usually has to be masked in the final product;
the odor is not unpleasant but not found that compatible with the products of
modern days’ sophisticated image. And the quality and price also vary with season.
The original cold cream recipe or the basic cold cream formula contains Borax.
Borax was added to the basic combination of ingredients at the end of the
nineteenth century. It reacts with fatty acids in the beeswax to form an
emulsion and makes the cream stable. Borax plays many different roles in cold
creams in that; it promotes emulsification and reduces surface tension of
water. Borax is used in various household laundry and cleaning products but to
its highly alkaline nature, it might cause skin irritation. There are also
reports of adverse reproductive and developmental impact on the fetus. Its use
in the long term is not recommended as there is a possibility of causing renal
dysfunction as the borax accumulates in the body. It can also cause fatigue or vomiting due to toxicity.
Some research suggests it could also cause genetic damage and be toxic to
lymphocytes, the building block of the body’s immune system (Figure 6) [51-56].
Since borax is a naturally occurring mineral
and is so useful in producing skincare and cleaning products, it is somewhat
puzzling why there is so much fuss about its use. It’s important to remember
that “natural” doesn’t always equal safe, nor does it guarantee we are
protected from adverse effects.
Sodium Behenoyl Lactylate can be used as an
emulsifying agent, humectant and conditioner in skin and hair care. Sodium
Behenoyl Lactylate is vegetable derived and can be used in creams, lotions,
facial cleansers and bath products such as bath butters and scrubs [59,60].
White beeswax is a chemically bleached form of yellow wax and is used in
similar applications: for example, to increase the consistency of creams and
ointments and to stabilize water-in-oil emulsions. White wax is used to polish
sugar-coated tablets and to adjust the melting point of suppositories. Beeswax
has been used since ancient times for its antimicrobial properties in European
and Asian traditional medicines. Preservative effects are possibly at the basis
of its use in embalming and mummification practices by old Egyptians and
Persian, or to model death masks by ancient Romans. A total of about 50 aroma
components have also been reported. The ester/acid ratio is important for
beeswax characterization by different Pharmacopeias, being generally lower (3-4)
in European and higher (8-9) in Asian beeswax [61,62]. Ceresin is often used as
a substitute for ozokerite wax due to its similar properties, and also as a
substitute for beeswax and paraffin wax. It acts as a rheological modifier at
low concentrations (2-3%) and has the ability to create very small
crystallites, which crosslink and establish a network structure that does not
allow flow in practical conditions. Ceresin produces stable mixtures with oils
and prevents bleeding or sweating of oil and it produces a lighter cream that
is less greasy [18,63]. Carbopol® 934 polymer is a white powder,
cross-linked polyacrylic acid polymer. It exhibits short flow properties and a
creamy sensory profile, and is therefore well suited for use as a rheology
modifier in lotions and creams [64]. Butylene glycol is an antimicrobial
preservative; humectant; solvent; water-miscible co-solvent. It is used in
topical ointments, creams and lotions and it is also used as a vehicle in
transdermal patches. Cottage cheese whey was unsatisfactory, but B. polymyxa
produced large amounts of the glycol in sweet whey, about 60 mmol of glycol per
100 mmol of lactose utilized [18,65]. It is widely used in cosmetics, including
low-irritant skin care products and topical medicaments, as an excellent and
low-irritation humectant [66]. Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are products of
condensed ethylene oxide and water that can have various derivatives and functions.
PEG-100 STEARATE (a polyethylene glycol ester of stearic acid, commercially
available as HallStar® PEG 4400 MS; Jeemate 4400 DPS; Sabowax SE
100) is a non-ionic emulsifier (o/w) from petrochemical and vegetal sources.
PEG-100 stearate is off-white, solid ester of polyethylene glycol (a binder and
a softener) and stearic acid. The surfactant qualities of glyceryl stearate and
PEG-100 stearate allow oil and water to mix. Used in after sun skin care,
antiperspirants, beach wear sun care, cleansing wipes. When it comes to
evaluating skin care chemicals to find the best ingredients for skin care, PEG
100 Stearate can be one of those cases where it’s difficult to make a clear-cut
assessment. On the one hand, this ingredient has many positive properties, such
as the ability to moisturize and cleanse the skin. However, some studies point
to a potential link between PEG 100 Stearate and development of toxicity within
the body. Some skin care experts even suggest that this ingredient has been
linked to problems with reproductive health and even cancer. When looking at
PEG 100 Stearate as an emollient, there are other ingredients, like shea and
cocoa butter that can also do the job very well. Glycerin is another well-known
emollient that can increase skin hydration and softness. When it comes to
emulsification properties of PEG 100 Stearate, alternative chemicals that are
sometimes used include ceteareth 20, glycol stearate or laureth 3 [67-70].
Sorbitol-based emulsifiers such as sorbitan sesquioleate (SSO) is used in a
variety of products including skin care products, skin cleansing products,
moisturizers, eye makeup and other makeup, primarily as an emollient. It is
added to formulas as a skin soother and moisturizer and is derived from
sorbitol, a humectant. They are commonly used in topical corticosteroids,
topical antibiotics, topical antifungals, moisturizing creams and lotions and
topical retinoids. Contact dermatitis from sorbitol derivatives appears to be
increasingly prevalent. Patch-testing with SSO can be useful in the work-up of
patients with presumptive cosmetic allergic contact dermatitis. Those
sensitized to SSO can be counseled to avoid sorbitol-containing products,
especially topical corticosteroids [71-73]. Glyceryl Stearate acts as
emollient; emulsifying agent; solubilizing agent; stabilizing agent;
sustained-release agent; tablet and capsule lubricant. As a lubricant on the
skin's surface, it gives the skin a soft and smooth appearance. It also slows
the loss of water from the skin by forming a barrier on the skin's surface.
Glyceryl Stearate and Glyceryl Stearate SE help to form emulsions by
reducing the surface tension of the substances to be emulsified. In cosmetics
and personal care products, Glyceryl Stearate is widely used and can be found
in lotions, creams, powders, skin cleansing products, makeup bases and
foundations, mascara, eye shadow, eyeliner, hair conditioners and rinses and
suntan and sunscreen products [18,74,75]. Cetyl Alcohol is a synthetic, solid,
fatty alcohol and nonionic surfactant. Cetyl alcohol is used as an emulsifying
agent in pharmaceutical preparations. Often confused with the bad alcohols,
such as denatured alcohol, the fatty alcohols include, among others, cetyl
alcohol and stearyl alcohol. Typically, fatty alcohols are used as emollients
and thickeners in skin-care products. Fatty alcohols are not irritating and, in
fact, can be beneficial for dry skin [76-80]. Dimethicone is an antifoaming
agent; emollient; water-repelling agent. Dimethicones of various viscosities
are widely used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulations. In topical
oil-in-water emulsions dimethicone is added to the oil phase as an antifoaming
agent. It is hydrophobic and is also widely used in topical barrier
preparations. Also called polydimethylsiloxane, is a type of silicone oil with
distinctive properties that make it a useful ingredient in many skin care
products. The combination of silicone with methyl groups tends to make it
extremely resistant to water yet it keeps them flexible and moving
free, ideal properties for a lubricant. Dimethicone is viscoelastic meaning
that, at high temperature, acts like a viscous liquid and, at low temperature,
acts like elastic solid, similar to rubber. According to USFDA, dimethicone at
concentrations between 1 and 30% is considered as a safe skin protectant.
Besides being water and UV resistant, dimethicone is not greasy and is not
expensive [82]. Glydant Plus™ is a unique and cost-effective preservative
featuring a high level of antimicrobial activity in a wide variety of cosmetic
and personal care formulations. Glydant Plus is also highly effective in
inhibiting the growth of gram positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and
molds without the need of additional auxiliary preservatives. This
water-soluble preservative has a low odor and is stable for extended periods of
time over wide pH and temperature ranges [83]. Alpha-hydroxy acids (AHA) such
as glycolic acid have been used extensively in cosmetic and dermatological
formulas. In low concentration (2-5%) glycolic acid is believed to facilitate
progressive weakening of cohesion of the intercellular material of the stratum
corneum (SC), resulting in uniform exfoliation of its outermost layers (the
stratum disjunctum) [84]. Exposure to UVB radiation induces inflammation and
free radical-mediated oxidative stress through reactive oxygen species (ROS)
that play a crucial role in the induction of skin cancer. Clinically chronic
photoaging may result in fine wrinkles, texture abnormalities, pigment
dyschromias and actinic keratoses [151]. Glycolic acid (GA) chemical peels are
a popular treatment for photo-aged skin rejuvenation although retinaldehyde
(RAL)-based cosmetic creams are potentially better tolerated than chemical
peels [85]. Short-term topical application of glycolic acid in a cosmetic
formulation increased the sensitivity of human skin to solar simulated
radiation (SSR), while a comparable treatment with salicylic acid did not [86].
Glycolic acid also stimulates the growth of new skin. Although the exact mechanism
of action of glycolic acid is still unknown, alpha-hydroxy acids decrease
corneocyte cohesion and it has been suggested that this occurs by interference
with the formation of ionic bonds. They dissolve adhesions between cells in the
upper layers of the skin, inducing shedding of dry scales from the skin’s
surface, commonly referred to as exfoliation [87]. AHAs have been used as
superficial peeling agents as well as to ameliorate the appearance of keratoses
and acne in dermatology. However, caution should be exercised in relation to
certain adverse reactions among patients using products with AHAs, including
swelling, burning, and pruritus [88]. GA suppressed the mRNA expression levels
of NLRC4 and AIM2 among the inflammasome complexes. GA also blocked interleukin
(IL)-1β by reducing the activity of caspase-1 in the NHEKs. Treatment with GA
(2%) inhibited UVB-induced inflammation marker NLRC4 protein levels in mouse
dorsal skin. The photoprotective activity of GA was ascribed to the inhibition
of ROS formation and DNA damage, as well as a reduction in the activities of
inflammasome complexes and IL-1β. GA has anti-inflammatory and photoprotective
effects against UVB irradiation (Figure
7). GA is potentially beneficial to the protection of human skin from UV
damage [89].
A natural tocopherol and one of the most potent antioxidant tocopherols.
It exhibits antioxidant activity by virtue of the phenolic hydrogen on the
2H-1-benzopyran-6-ol nucleus [90]. Stability of vitamin E depends on its form,
dl-α-Toc acetate being the most stable. It protects the skin from various
deleterious effects due to solar radiation by acting as a free-radical
scavenger. Experimental studies suggest that vitamin E has anti-tumorigenic and
photoprotective properties [91]. Although many cosmeceuticals contain vitamins
C and E, very few are actually effective in topical application because the
stability is compromised as soon as the product is opened and exposed to air
and light. However, when a stable formulation delivers a high concentration of
non-esterified, optimal isomer of the antioxidant, vitamins C and E inhibit the
acute UV damage as well as chronic UV photoaging and skin cancer [92]. The
solubility of ascorbyl palmitate in alcohol permits it to be used in non-aqueous
and aqueous systems and emulsions. It is an anti-mutagenic agent; antioxidant
[93]. Ascorbic acid-6-palmitate reduced cellular levels of reactive oxygen
species following ultraviolet B irradiation. Ascorbic acid-6-palmitate strongly
promoted ultraviolet-B-induced lipid peroxidation, c-Jun N-terminal kinase
activation, and cytotoxicity, however. Despite its antioxidant properties,
ascorbic acid-6-palmitate may intensify skin damage following physiologic doses
of ultraviolet radiation [94]. Vitamin C also improves the elasticity of the
skin and reduces wrinkles by stimulating collagen synthesis. Since it
suppresses pigmentation and decomposes melanin, it is used as a skin-whitening
agent. However, applied ascorbic acid is extremely reactive and therefore
unstable in dispersions due to the fast oxidation and further irreversible
chemical transformation. Therefore, the use of less reactive derivatives like
ascorbyl phosphate salts (pro-antioxidant) or lipophilic ascorbyl esters is an
attempt to prolong their stability [95]. Ascorbyl palmitate widely used in cosmetic
and pharmaceutical preparations. Light accelerated the degradation of ascorbyl
palmitate. In contrast, sodium ascorbyl phosphate was stable in both types of
microemulsions. Sodium ascorbyl phosphate is shown to be convenient as an
active ingredient in topical preparations [96]. The most common AHAs in
cosmetic products are glycolic acid and lactic acid. Among others are citric
acid, hydroxycaprylic acid and hydroxycapric acid [97].
Night creams
Night and massage creams are designed to be
left on the skin for several hours or to remain mobile on the skin even after
vigorous rubbing [98]. Therefore, they are composed with a substantial oil
phase which will spread easily without disappearing but also without rubbing
off on to clothing or bed linen in use. Such creams tend to be
high-oil-content, water-in-oil, soft solid or viscous liquid creams. A
moisturizing effect is resulted due to the formation of the occlusive layer on
the skin surface thereby reducing the rate of trans-epidermal water loss.
Hence, the skin surface feels smooth by lubricating action and allowing any
“saw tooth” cells in the outer layer of the stratum corneum to be smoothed
down. The occlusive layer prevents epidermal moisture loss and also gives
lubrication. Massage has a valuable part to play in skin care since it is well
known that vigorous rubbing of the skin prevents dead surface cells and keeps
epidermal blood supply in good condition. The term “moisturizing” has also been
applied to water-in-oil creams of this type. The recent research has broadened
the concept of moisturizing from the simple occlusive skin barrier principle.
Many night moisturizing creams are comparatively light and easy to rub in
compared with those of the overnight and massage types, although there still
remains a market for the heavier moisturizing creams [99]. Recently, day and
night creams containing Melatonin, vehiculated in lipospheres (Melatosphere™),
have been developed (Nutriage day cream and Nutriage night cream; Cantabria
Labs, Difa Cooper, Caronno Pertusella, VA, Italy). Melatonin is considered as a
strong antioxidant molecule, and it is one of the most potent ·OH radical
scavenger in nature. The liposphere carrier system could further improve the
penetration of the Mel molecules through the skin layers. In women with skin
aging, Melatonin-based creams improved significantly skin tonicity and skin
hydration with a significant reduction in skin roughness, supporting the skin
anti-aging effect of this molecule applied topically (Table 3) [100].
Deionized (DI) water is water that has been
treated to remove all ions – typically, that means the entire dissolved mineral
salts [111]. Glycerin is used as humectant/emollient. Dermosoft®
GMCY (Glyceryl Caprylate) is a skin-conditioning agent - emollient; surfactant
- emulsifying agent [112,113]. synergistic effects of isopropyl myristate and
glyceryl monocaprylate (GEFA-C8) enhanced transdermal permeation of PTZ by
disrupting SC lipids [114]. There is a considerable interest in the development
of preservative-free or self-preserving cosmetics. Lonicera caprifoleum and Lonicera
japonica in combination with glyceryl caprylate and/or levulinic acid,
p-anisic acid and ethanol (5%) gave an important assistance in order to boost
the self-preserving system and to produce stable and safe cosmetic products
[115]. Glyceryl Caprylate is a preferred ingredient in many natural care
products (claimed safe for baby products). It is derived from plants, and a
valuable resource because of its many properties. Glyceryl Caprylate
moisturizes and balances the pH of the skin. Its antimicrobial and antifungal
properties keep bacteria-causing germs at bay. It also contains a natural
preservative that prevents mold from forming. It is very compatible with known
organic ingredients but can also interact with extra iron [116]. It’s
moisturizing and re-fatting properties assist with improving and maintaining
the moisture and balanced environment of the skin. It can also help to combat
impurities due to its strong activity against Propionibacterium acnes [117]. Xanthan gum (XG) is a complex
exopolysaccharide produced by the plant-pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. (Xanthomonas
bacteria, a Gram-negative bacteria genus that exhibits several different
species) and is widely used as a thickener (gelling agent) or viscosity
modifier [118]. It is also used as stabilizing agent; suspending agent;
sustained-release agent [18]. The use of bioadhesive hydrogels for skin care
presents important advantages such as long residence times on the application
site and reduced product administration frequency. Hydrogel formulations showed
a prevalently elastic rheological behavior. Complex viscosity of carbomer
homopolymer type C hydrogels was higher than that of the kappa carrageenan
hydrogels. Formulations which combined carbomer homopolymer type C with xanthan
gum or with carbomer copolymer type B were the most promising for bioadhesive
skin products [119]. It has widely been used as an additive in various
industrial and biomedical applications such as food and food packaging,
cosmetics, water-based paints, toiletries, petroleum, oil-recovery,
construction and building materials and drug delivery. Recently, it has shown
great potential in issue engineering applications and a variety of modification
methods have been employed to modify xanthan gum as polysaccharide for this
purpose [120]. Biophilic™ H is a patented phospholipid-based O/W lamellar
emulsifier designed to create elegant and very comfortable formulas. Its lamellar
structure has a particular affinity to the skin, resulting in a second skin
effect for maximum biocompatibility and tolerance [121]. Hydrogenated Lecithin
is the product of controlled hydrogenation of Lecithin. Bilayers of these
phospholipids in water may form liposomes, a spherical structure in which the
acyl chains are inside and not exposed to the aqueous phase. Lecithin and
Hydrogenated Lecithin are used in a large number of cosmetic formulations as
skin conditioning agents-miscellaneous and as surfactant-emulsifying agents.
Hydrogenated Lecithin is also used as a suspending agent-non-surfactant. Based
on the available data, Lecithin and Hydrogenated Lecithin are safe as used in
rinse-off cosmetic products; they may be safely used in leave-on products at
concentrations up to 15%, the highest concentration tested in clinical
irritation and sensitization studies; but the safety of use could not be
substantiated in cosmetic products likely to be inhaled. Because of the
possibility of formation of nitrosamines, these ingredients should not be used
in cosmetic products in which N-nitroso compounds may be formed [122].
Functionally sunflower oil is a diluent; emollient; emulsifying agent; solvent;
tablet binder. Skin care influences skin barrier function during the first
postnatal weeks. Sunflower oil did not harm skin barrier function adaptation in
healthy term neonates during the first five weeks of life [123]. Natural oils
are applied topically as part of a traditional oil massage to neonates in many
developing countries. Topical application of linoleate-enriched oil such as
sunflower seed oil might enhance skin barrier function and improve outcome in
neonates with compromised barrier function. Mustard oil, used routinely in
newborn care throughout South Asia, has toxic effects on the epidermal barrier
that warrant further investigation [124,125]. Topical application of olive oil
for 4 weeks caused a significant reduction in stratum corneum integrity and
induced mild erythema in volunteers with and without a history of atopic
dermatitis. Sunflower seed oil preserved stratum corneum integrity, did not
cause erythema, and improved hydration in the same volunteers. In contrast to
sunflower seed oil, topical treatment with olive oil significantly damages the
skin barrier, and therefore has the potential to promote the development of,
and exacerbate existing, atopic dermatitis [126]. Several studies have shown
significant differences between the moisturizing effects and skin tolerances of
virgin and refined vegetable oils when incorporated in cosmetic emulsions. The
phospholipid content of Hazelnut oil decreased from 286 ppm in virgin oil to
traces in refined oil. Still, moisturizing effect obtained with the emulsion
containing the enriched refined oil was shown to be the same as that obtained
with the virgin oil emulsion [127]. Hazelnut oil contains 66-85% oleic acid,
7-25% linoleic acid, 4-9% palmitic acid and 1-6% stearic acid. When used in
cosmetics and personal care products, hazelnut oil and Hydrogenated Hazelnut
Oil function as skin-conditioning agents - emollient and skin-conditioning
agents – occlusive. It's loaded with skin-nourishing vitamins and essential
fatty acids that help protect skin against sun damage, boost collagen
production, and more. Hazelnut is non-greasy and is best used for those who
have oily skin but still want to enjoy the many benefits of carrier oils [128].
Vitapherole E1000 (Tocopherol and Helianthus
annuus Seed Oil combination); Vitapherole® is a line of IP
natural-source vitamin E or tocopherols including α-tocopherols, mixed
tocopherols and acetates. They protect the skin from environmental stressors
like pollution and UV. Tocopherols also help tighten and firm the look of skin
which makes vitamin E the perfect addition to any anti-aging formula [129].
Shea butter is a vegetable fat obtained from the fruit of a tree native to
Africa, Butyrospermum parkii. Shea
butter is primarily composed of fatty acids such as stearic and oleic acids.
This product can be used in formulations from 1% to 100%. It is a natural
emollient that will add moisture back into the skin while also reducing
swelling. Shea tree is abundantly found in the wide belt of savannah including
West African countries like Nigeria, and further east in Uganda. Nowadays, shea
butter, mainly the traditional one (called BIO-shea butter) interests cosmetic
and pharmaceutical firms, contained nutritional elements like essential fatty
acids (oleic and linoleic acids), minerals (calcium, iron, copper, magnesium,
sodium, potassium and zinc), vitamins (A and E) and carotene, which would
present them as available, cheap and accessible nutritive edible fats
[130,131]. Whitessence ™ is a strong natural lightening agent extracted from
Asian nangka seeds. The specific proteins of Whitessence ™ inhibit the transfer
of melanin from melanocytes to keratinocytes. The decrease in the melanin
quantity at the surface of the skin results in a clear and unified complexion
[132,133]. Exo-T™, exopolysaccharide from Kopara (microorganisms mat) living in
unique ecosystem in the rims of French Polynesian atolls, acts as an
anti-wrinkle agent, anti-aging agent and regenerating/revitalizing
(manufacturer’s claim) [134]. Also, Tyrostat™ 9 is claimed as a potent strong
inhibitor of tyrosinase enzymatic activity, one of the main enzymes involved in
the pigmentation process [135]. Potassium sorbate is a potassium salt having
sorbate as the counter ion. Potassium Sorbate is a mild preservative being used
in cosmetic and skin care formulas as a paraben alternative to prevent or
retard the growth of microorganisms and protect products from spoiling.
Phenoxyethanol, citric acid, sodium benzoate, and potassium sorbate were very
common in all the cosmetic product categories, found in a study where 2300
products commercially available in Spain was collected and examined to identify
the frequency of a wide variety of preservatives in different product
categories (Figure 8 and Exhibit 1) [136].
According to the magazine Longevity, Princess
Diana was “scrupulous about using an SPF-8 sunblock.” While the American
Academy of Dermatology recommends applying at least SPF 30, protection against
UV rays can prevent both sunburn and dangerous skin cancers.
Massage creams
A beauty massages cream that promotes
resilience and firmness while helping prevent sagging and other signs of aging.
The great interest in eternal youth has developed a large market for skin care
products claiming anti-wrinkle effects. Facial massage is an extremely popular
form of beauty treatment and is thought to rejuvenate the skin. It may refresh
the subjects by reducing their psychological distress and activating the
sympathetic nervous system [152]. Performing short-term facial massage with a
roller increases SkBF and long-term use improves the vascular dilatation
response [150]. Facial beauty treatment generally consists of three steps:
vigorous massaging of the face with creams, steaming (using a hot towel or a
steaming gadget), and application of a face mask containing adsorbents and
astringents. Combining massage with moisturizer application is a popular
technique in beauty spa sessions. The subjective positive psychological effects
of massage with moisturizer application in hand and face beauty treatment are
documented by many people attending spa sessions. Interestingly, daily
performance of massage after moisturizer application was not an effective
external intervention for enhancing moisturizer efficacy [147]. The action of
rubbing a cream or emollient into the skin is a form of massage, and this
simple action will go a very long way towards the recovery of skin integrity
and in the prevention of harm and infection [148]. Anecdotally, the addition of
aromatherapy oils to massage cream may have a positive effect on symptom relief
in people with cancer, although evidence is again lacking [149]. Although there
are several subjective benefits with facial beauty treatment, there may be
immediate side-effects, such as erythema and edema, as well as delayed
problems, such as dermatitis and acneiform eruption (follicular eruptions characterized
by papules and pustules resembling acne), in about one-third of patients [101].
Gentle massage is often facilitated using a cream to reduce friction on the
skin. However, there is also the possibility of massage causing harm - massage
or rubbing of vulnerable skin may exert shear stresses which may themselves
potentially cause damage. In addition, it is also possible that the use of a
cream or emollient as part of the massage regimen may increase epidermal
hydration and prevent dermal stripping and the subsequent exposure of fragile
dermal tissue [102]. Cellulite has been treated with massage which decreases
tissue edema but it is also likely to have its effects at the cellular level by
stimulating fibroblast (and keratinocyte) activity while decreasing adipocyte
activity. In addition to massage, effective topical creams with a variety of
agents were used to ameliorate the condition [103]. Slimming Cream Containing
3.5% Water-soluble caffeine and xanthenes appears to be effective for the
treatment of cellulitis without serious adverse effects. Moreover, massage is
also used to remove interstitial fluid and accelerate lymphatic drainage, which
leads to the reduction of cellulite [157]. Client-preferred massage creams are
ideal for all modalities and offer a unique combination of medium glide,
friction, and typically absorb completely into the skin. Massage Warehouse
carries a wide range of organic massage cream brands including TheraPro,
Massage FX, Lotus Touch, Soothing Touch, Bon Vital and much more! [104].
Massage therapy has been shown to have beneficial effects on varying conditions
including prenatal depression, preterm infants, full-term infants, autism, skin
conditions, pain syndromes including arthritis and fibromyalgia, hypertension,
autoimmune conditions including asthma and multiple sclerosis, immune
conditions including HIV and breast cancer and aging problems including
Parkinson's and dementia [105]. Thai foot massage may be one of the alternative
therapies to improve balance performance for diabetic patients as a result of
increasing range of motion (ROM) and sensation of the
foot [106]. Massage in infancy improves growth and post-massage sleep. However,
only sesame oil showed significant benefit [107]. Swedish Massage Therapy (SMT)
is a complementary treatment that is believed to provide relaxation and
therefore able to reduce blood pressure caused by stress [108]. Massage creams
and lotions are well-suited to deep tissue and other high-friction massages.
They tend to provide medium glide, and while they can be nourishing to the skin, are
typically absorbed fairly slowly. Lotion and cream are often similar products,
but tend to have a different consistency. Creams are generally quite a bit
thicker, while lotions are more liquid. Lotions tend to give more bang for
buck, as they are more spreadable. Creams do better for topical treatments on
tough areas of skin. Some creams and lotions, particularly water-based ones,
can leave the skin feeling dried out. Creams generally come in jars or tubs which
don’t fit into holsters, which can be a hassle during treatments. Creams and
lotions are often cold when first applied to the skin and can be difficult to
heat. Many are also scented, which will bother some clients (Table 4) [109].
Ethyl
hexyl palmitate is an ingredient that functions as an emollient, solvent,
pigment wetting agent, and fragrance fixative in cosmetics and personal care
products. As an emollient, ethyl hexyl palmitate helps to keep the skin moist
and supple by reducing water loss from the epidermis (the outer layer of skin).
Emollients also act as lubricants by reducing friction when anything rubs
against the skin. Ethyl hexyl palmitate is considered to be a non-occlusive
emollient, which means it does not form a film on the surface of skin. It is
often used as an organic replacement to silicones in a cosmetic formulation
because it provides a dry-slip, silky feel that is very similar to how a
silicone would feel. While all skin types can benefit from emollients like
ethyl hexyl palmitate, emollients are very beneficial for those who have dry,
rough and/or flaky skin. Emollients can treat these symptoms, leaving the skin
looking and feeling soft and smooth. In addition, emollients can benefit those
that suffer from conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, or other inflammatory
skin condition [159]. Instruments that have been used for assessing epidermal
hydration are based on measurements of conductance, capacitance and impedance
of the skin. Most of the commercial moisturizer contains Aloe barbadensis (Aloe vera)
as a moisturizing agent. Ingestion of Aloe preparations is associated with
diarrhea, hypokalemia, pseudomelanosis coli (a disorder of pigmentation of the
wall of the colon), kidney failure, as well as phototoxicity and hypersensitive
reactions [160]. However, there so many other herb’s extract/juices/oils like
grape seed, cucumber, basil, jojoba oil, almond oil, olive oil, etc., present
in the commercial moisturizer section claiming for restoring skin hydration and
viscoelasticity [161]. Many of grape seed oil's beauty benefits may be due to
its omega-6 fatty acid content and vitamin E, an antioxidant that helps to
build tissue and lineolic acid, a fatty acid which promotes hair and skin growth.
Nonionic emulsifiers depend chiefly upon hydroxyl groups and ether linkages
(from polyhydric alcohol anhydrides and polyoxyethylene chains) for their
hydrophobic effects [164]. Nonionic emulsifiers are usually less irritating
than their ionic counterparts. Examples of nonionic emulsifiers include
cholesterol, a natural component of the lipid bilayer, polyethylene glycol,
cetearyl alcohol, ceteareth-20 and stearyl alcohol [162]. This non-ionic
emulsifier blend, INCI Cetearyl Alcohol and Ceteareth 20, is a waxy pastille
and creates a thicker, waxier end product. It is derived from coconut fatty
acid. It is excellent for foot and elbow creams, which are slightly heavier.
Provides good emollience and feel. It forms highly stable emulsions with
excellent appearance and feel, compatible with a wide range of ingredients and
pH [163]. Chemically, caprylic/capric triglyceride contains a high
concentration of fatty acids, which allows it to provide an occlusive layer to
help increase moisture-retention at the skin's surface. As a result,
caprylic/capric triglyceride can have emollient properties that may boost
skin-hydration levels [166]. Application of the o/w emulsion formulation
containing either HP or capric/caprylic triglyceride significantly elevated
skin moisture content and thus reduced transepidermal
water loss (TEWL) by a maximal approximately 33% against the control
formulation within 3 h and maintained this up to 6 h [167]. Germaben II-E can
be used in problem formulations, without the need for additional
co-preservatives. It is compatible with almost all cosmetic ingredients,
including surfactants and proteins. Germaben II-E is a clear viscous liquid
preservative system with a characteristic mild odor. It is readily soluble at a
level of 1.0% in both water/oil and oil/water emulsions, but not in water
alone. Germaben II contains propylene glycol, propylparaben, methylparaben and
diazolidinyl urea. Some studies have raised concerns that paraben substances
may be carcinogenic owing to their effect of mimicking the body’s hormone
estrogen” [168-170].
VITAMINS USED IN SKIN CREAMS
The number of
cosmetic products which include vitamins as a constituent has increased
three-fold since 1991. Vitamins are commonly used as ingredients of products
designed to improve the appearance and health of the skin; for this reason, the
cutaneous benefits of such products are actively researched by dermatologists
and chemists. It has been claimed that fat-soluble as well as water-soluble
vitamins are capable of being taken up through the skin. The use of stabilized
vitamins in cosmetic preparations for external application is justified [171].
Pantothenic acid is a part of the water-soluble vitamin B complex. Its
precursor and the related materials – panthenol, pantethine and pangamic acid
have all been quoted as having a beneficial action on the skin and being useful
in skin and/or hair preparations. Skin softening ability of pantothenic
acid-based topical products has also been demonstrated in a few recent clinical
trials [172]. Although there is no certain proof that they penetrate the skin
and reach the location where they might exert an influence, vitamin B complex,
panthenol and vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) are used in some cosmetics. Vitamin D,
like vitamin A, is oil-soluble and is essential for skin health, but
deficiencies are best corrected by oral administration to achieve a systemic
effect. However, vitamins D2 and D3 (calciferol) are used, sometimes in
conjunction with vitamin A. A mixture of vitamins A, E and D3 has been claimed
to be synergistic. Vitamin E is said to enhance percutaneous resorption and
vitamin H is claimed to help fat and cholesterol synthesis. Other vitamins
having some using topical preparations include the so-called vitamin F, now
known as essential (unsaturated) fatty acids (EFA) [173].
MOISTURIZER
Normal skin contains lower levels of
histamine and inflammatory cytokines compared to dry skin. Premature expression
of involucrin, a protein that forms a protective envelope around corneocytes,
has been implicated in the pathophysiology of dry skin. In addition, xerotic
skin has been shown to contain higher levels of keratin 5 and 14 and lower
levels of keratin 1 and 10 compared to normal skin. The schematic on the right
shows the cracked stratum corneum that is characteristic of dry skin and
associated with decreased water content (blue spheres) and increased involucrin
cross-linking (yellow crosses).
Occlusion (by lanolin, petroleum, silicones,
mineral and vegetable oil) prevent water loss from healthy normal skin causing
the stratum corneum to be more hydrated, making it softer and supple. Examples
of occlusive are: mineral and vegetable oils, lanolin and silicones. Their
effect is increased by the use of mixtures of lipids and other fatty chemicals
which have been designed to imitate the composition of the skin’s natural oily
secretions. More recently, skin substantive barrier materials (mainly based on
quaternary ammonium complexes) have become available which seem to be able to
influence the rate of trans-epidermal water loss without putting an inclusive
or greasy barrier on the skin surface. These materials can be shown to be
substantive to skin (and hair) and act not only as moisturizers, but as
emollients and skin conditioning agents. Examples are quaternium, a
hydroxyethyl-cellulose derivative [178]. Humectants (Glycerol, Ethylene Glycol,
PG, sorbitol alone or in admixture at various levels) attract water from
atmosphere, so supplementing the skin water content. They can be used alone or in
a mixture at various levels. Whether or not they penetrate the skin surface is
a moot point, but at least they will attract moisture to the skin. [179,180].
The third and most valuable approach to miniaturization to supplementing Natural Moisturizing Factors (NMF) from the skin those
are removed by polar solvents and detergent solutions. The NMF contains a
combination of several naturally occurring free amino acids, urocanic acid,
inorganic salts, sugars, lactic acid and urea. Many of these are highly efficient
at attracting and binding water from the atmosphere, allowing adequate
hydration of corneocytes even in low humidity environment. Once applied to the
skin, the ingredients can stay on the surface, be absorbed into the skin, be metabolized
or disappear from the surface by evaporation, sloughing off or by contact with
other materials. In addition to substances considered as actives, e.g. fats and
humectants, moisturizers contain substances conventionally considered as
excipients (e.g. emulsifiers, antioxidants, preservatives). Partitioning of
antioxidants, hydrogen bonding, interphase transport, surface accessibility,
and interaction of emulsifier with antioxidants are considered to be important
parameters that determine antioxidant activity in lipid-containing systems.
Some formulations may deteriorate the skin condition, whereas others improve
the clinical appearance and skin barrier function. For example, emulsifiers may
weaken the barrier. On the other hand, petrolatum has an immediate barrier-repairing
effect in delipidized stratum corneum. Moreover, one ceramide-dominant lipid mixture improved atopic dermatitis and decreased TEWL in an open-label study in children
[181-183]. A typical moisturizing formulation is detailed in Table 5.
Isopropyl
Linoleate the ester of isopropyl alcohol, it is a pale yellow, oily liquid. In
cosmetics and personal care products, Isopropyl Linoleate may be used in the
formulation of face and skin care products, hair care products and eye and
facial makeup. It acts as a lubricant on the skin's surface, which gives the skin
a soft and smooth appearance [185]. The structure of a stable O/W cream is
characterized by a more or less pronounced mixed crystal bilayer. The addition
of co-emulsifiers in order to achieve a soft formulation often leads to a mixed
crystal bilayer network of high viscosity and even phases separation. In order
to avoid this component of different chemical identities are used which often
are not inert or harmless if they are absorbed. The amount of co-emulsifier
used should not be too high, as it would crystallize increasingly during
storage which gives the preparation an optical inhomogenity and a lack in
softness which is needed for a suitable cosmetic acceptance. A slightly higher
concentration than is necessary for the mixed emulsifier system can be advantageous,
as the formation of a separate crystalline lipophilic network in the
preparation increases its viscosity which will lead to a higher
physico-chemical stability of the formulation. These results were obtained with
the co-emulsifiers glyceryl monostearate (Imwitor 900), cetylstearyl alcohol
(Lanette O) and PEG-20-glycerolstearate (Tagat S2) as O/W emulsifier [186].
Glyceryl Monostearate Emollient; emulsifying agent; solubilizing agent;
stabilizing agent [18]. Diisopropyl adipate (DIPA) is a fatty acid ester and an
isopropyl ester; clear, colorless to light yellow viscous liquids. It is used
for a variety of applications, such as the production of moisturizers, shaving
lotions and cleaning agents. DIPA acts as a lubricant on the skin surface which
gives the skin a soft and smooth appearance. Its solvent properties allow its
use as a carrier for other cosmetic ingredients and also to soften synthetic
compounds by reducing brittleness and cracking [187]. Myristyl Myristate is a
100% natural vegetable derived ester utilizing only the Myristic fatty acids.
Non-greasy solid emollient, enhances esthetic properties of skin care products,
gives more body and spreadability, results in superior whitening to the product
and improved benefits to the skin [188]. About PEG-40 STEARATE: PEG-40 stearate
is a synthetic polymer composed of PEG (polyethylene glycol) and stearic acid,
a naturally occurring fatty acid. Products and formulas containing PEG 40
Stearate should not be used on broken or irritated skin. Although PEGs are
considered safe for use topically on healthy skin, studies showed that patients
suffering from severe burns were treated with PEG-based antimicrobial cream;
this treatment resulted in kidney toxicity. Due to the presence of PEG, this
ingredient may contain potentially toxic manufacturing impurities such as
1,4-dioxane [189]. Cetyl alcohol is a common choice of emollient. It forms a
layer on the skin, which traps the water on the skin and prevents it from
escaping, thereby inhibiting skin dehydration [190]. Ceteareth-20 functions as
an emollient and emulsifier. It's usually used in conjunction with other
alcohols and fatty acids, working to thicken a solution and help other
ingredients dissolve in a solvent. It also functions as a nonionic stabilizer
in oil in water emulsions. Ceteareth-20 is the polyethylene glycol ether of
cetearyl alcohol; may contain potentially toxic impurities such as 1,4-dioxane
[191]. Quaternium-22 is a light amber-colored liquid, a quaternary ammonium
salt. The unreacted monomer content of these ingredients was considered low and
of no toxicological concern. Limited data showed no skin
irritation/sensitization. Although these ingredients were non-genotoxic in
bacterial assays, mammalian genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive and
developmental toxicity data were not available [192]. However, its toxicity is
due to its ability to act as a nitrosating agent, releasing potentially
carcinogenic nitrosamines [193]. Hydroxyethyl cellulose is a polysaccharide
derivative with gel thickening, emulsifying, bubble-forming, water-retaining
and stabilizing properties. It is used as a key ingredient in many household
cleaning products, lubricants and cosmetics due to its non-ionic and
water-soluble nature [194]. Propylene glycol is a synthetic liquid substance
that absorbs water. It is a clear, colorless, viscous, practically odorless
liquid, with a sweet, slightly acrid taste resembling that of glycerin. It is a
propanediol that exists as a clear, colorless and hygroscopic liquid and
consists of propane where the hydrogen at positions 1 and 2 are substituted by
hydroxyl groups. It acts as Antimicrobial preservative; disinfectant;
humectant; plasticizer; solvent; stabilizing agent; water-miscible co-solvent.
Propylene glycol is used as an organic solvent and diluent in pharmaceuticals
and many other industrial applications (Figure
10) [195].
In the winter season when the air is crisp
and chilly, a special skin care is necessary. Dry skin in the winter has been
reported to involve scaling, defects in water holding and barrier functions and
decreased ceramide levels in the stratum corneum (SC). Indicators of dry skin
conditions (conductance, dryness, roughness and scaliness) strongly correlated
with the level of ceramide. Daily application of a moisturizing cream is
effective in improving mild subclinical inflammation that is induced on the facial
skin by the winter environment (Exhibits
2-4).
VANISHING
AND FOUNDATION CREAM
The majority of the products are moisturizers
with added ingredients to support marketing claims. Whether the product is a
facial foundation, an anti-aging night cream, a sunscreen, a topical
antioxidant or a skin-lightening serum, the formulation is basically a
moisturizer. Skin care products are numerous and perplexing, yet there is
certain commonality among 80% of the formulations [208]. In order to achieve
rapid ‘Rub in’ effect, vanishing creams are composed of emollient esters in oil
phase which leave little apparent film over skin. For this reason, a low
percentage oil phase usually chosen. The presence of the humectant glycerin was
also used to claim that they helped reduce moisture loss from dry skin.
Vanishing Cream is made especially for the outer skin. It is greaseless. It
contains a marvelous substance that prevents loss of skin moisture – actually
replaces lost moisture [209]. Major difference with cold cream is that cold
cream is an emulsion of water and certain fats, usually including beeswax and
various scent agents, designed to smooth skin and remove makeup. The emulsion
is of a “water in oil” type unlike the “oil in water” type emulsion of
vanishing cream, so-called because it seems to disappear when applied on skin
[210]. The history of foundation use can be traced back as far as 200 B.C. It
was considered fashionable to have a pale complexion, so Greek women applied
white lead powder and chalk to lighten their skin. Roman women and men also
lightened their skins using white lead, chalk, and tin oxide-based creams. This
fashion continued during the middle ages up to the early 19th century
when consumers used numerous toxic concoctions to lighten their skin [217].
Foundation creams possess many of the same properties of vanishing creams.
Foundation creams process many of the same properties. These creams are for
daytime use to protect and “condition” the cleansed skin. It is important to know
whether a foundation provides sun protection and whether it meets the standards
set for other sunscreen products. Sunscreen agents help to protect the
consumer’s skin from the harmful, aging effects of shortwave solar radiation.
Foundation cream comes in several forms: the original cream, a lighter mousse
version, a heavier stick version and a “pancake” version, a powder that turns
creamy after spraying it with water. There's also a relatively new hybrid
called cream to powder foundation (also called dual-finish foundation), which
looks like a powder and applies like a cream if it is wet and then dries to a
powder finish. Protection which is imbalanced for either UV-B or UV-A radiation
is potentially harmful for users believing themselves adequately protected.
Foundations proved to be much more interesting because they possess a
non-negligible SPF as well as good photostability making these products safe in
terms of their mode of application (applied once daily in a study) [214]. They
must therefore leave the skin non-greasy and preferably matte so that other
makeup can easily be applied over it. Modern foundation creams are of excellent
appearance and stability. They contain emollients and moisturizers. In terms of
spreadability, coverage and adhesion, the results of group who used the ‘oscillation
applicator’ were significantly twice as high as the other group who applied by
hand [215].
The right foundation helps creating illusion
of flawless skin. Foundation is arguably the most important part of our makeup
routine. It covers blemishes, evens out skin tone and mattifes or illuminates
depending on needs (Figure 11) [221]. Clients with pigmented skin
are often coerced into purchasing a foundation that has too much white pigment
[216]. Pigmented foundation creams can contain from 3-25% of pigments. Those
with between 3 and 10% form a suitable substrate for the use for the subsequent
use of powder, whereas those with higher pigment concentrations can be used as
complete makeup and are often termed powder creams. They can be
water-continuous or oil-continuous systems in liquid or solid form. The
difficulties encountered in the preparations are: (a) The preferential
absorption of emulsifier in the high surface of the pigment may sometimes cause
inversion of the emulsion; (b) The inadequate dispersion of the pigment for
reproducible colors. Pigments can be suspended by the use of cellulose
derivatives or inorganic silicates such as bentonite or hydrated magnesium
silicate [99]. According to dermatologists, it has been researched that the
foundation cream covers the skin pores to produce a radiant look causing pore
congestion and disrupt the skin from breathing. Not only that, after a long
time it has been observed that the cream becomes oily which might result into
blemishes and peeling especially dry skin. It is therefore advisable that after
using foundation cream the layer should be thoroughly wash in the evening or
else face the consequences of inflammation, acnes, rashes and pimples as the
skin might be stuck with this. Women with status cosmeticus cannot tolerate
makeup and complain of a continuous burning sensation after any application (Table 6) [219].
HAND AND BODY CREAMS (ALL PURPOSE CREAMS)
True to its name, all-purpose cream is a
flexible and versatile type of cream that can be used for both your savory and
sweet creations [207]. They act nourishing or night cream when applied
excessively, they function as hand creams when applied sparingly, thus they are
called all-purpose cream [220]. All-purpose creams are typified by a W/O
emulsion or by high oil content O/W emulsions. These products are for general
face and body usage and generally have a heavy consistency and significant drag
on rub-out [42]. The cream is pourable at room temperature but can also be
easily wiped when chilled. Preparations should comply following requirements:
(a) As a foundation cream for general use it must provide a satisfactory
foundation base for make-up without being too greasy (b) As a cleansing cream
it should liquefy quickly, be of an oily nature but should be free from ‘Drag’.
It should not be readily absorbed by the skin (c) As a hand cream it should be
emollient yet not leave a greasy or sticky film on the skin (d) As a protective
and emollient cream, it should leave a continuous but non-occlusive oil film on
the skin. There appears to be a market for all purpose cream because: (i)
Unsophisticated user who are unwilling to pay money therefore buys one cream to
do as much as possible (ii) Slightly more sophisticated user who buys a
speciality cream for one particular function and uses it as a speciality cream
(iii) User who finds the cream ideally suited to their particular skin (iv) The
user who particularly fragments their skin creams but resorts to an all-purpose
cream when travelling or on holiday (v) For general family use and protection
against the elements [48].
EPILOGUE
The skin plays many roles ranging from barrier function to highly
complex biochemical and photobiochemical processes. If we follow this
definition then skin care products are inherently not simply cosmetics to
beautify the appearance of the skin. Many cosmetic formulations have complex
mixtures of actives and the interactions of which are not all well-defined.
They then affect either the structure or the function (or both) of the skin.
Unlike drugs, cosmetics typically are very safe and have few significant
serious adverse events. However, like drugs, these active agents can impact
many diverse functions of the skin and we do not fully comprehend the
implications of these actions in many cases. Skin care products are readily
available and their promotions with fanciful claims are omnipresent. The
promotions are based on effects, evoked by actives that are delivered through
vehicles that rely on specific technologies. Due to the fact, that these
products are in direct contact to the target tissue, their vehicle and
ingredients are able to profoundly modulate the characteristics of the skin and
some of its functions. This makes products for the skin absolute unique and
versatile delivery systems. Currently the majority of skin care products are
cosmetics. In cosmetic products claims often describe their functionalities and
may be as simple as “soothe signs of dry skin” but may also be more fanciful
like “Multi-ingredient anti-aging moisturizer designed to improve the
appearance of facial skin”. Skin care products are characterized by effects,
evoked by actives that are delivered through vehicles that rely on specific
technologies. The regulatory situation is unknown to most of the consumers and
healthcare professionals. They have to trust the current regulations on
cosmetic products and quality standards used by the manufacturer. This means
that professional healthcare practitioners have a substantial responsibility
for skin health while delivering skin care.
ARTICLE SUMMARY
Skin care provide almost any possible kind of
vehicles, including emulsifiers, surfactants, oils and butters, waxes, and
hydrophilic solutions. These substances combine the properties of drug delivery
to the skin, typical of vehicles, with the ability to produce specific actions
on the skin, such as occlusive, moisturizing, smoothing, firming, soothing and
conditioning effects. This term “Cosmetics” indicates cosmetic-pharmaceutical
hybrids aimed at enhancing the beauty of the skin by means of ingredients that
modify skin functionality or provide additional health-related function or
benefit. As well as giving beauty to a person via the skin, the cosmetic
industry has now strongly linked its products medicinally to the subject of
anti-ageing of the skin. The industry has also coined such terms as actives,
cosmeceuticals, nutricosmetics, etc., and the legislation associated with cosmetology
and dermatology has become similar.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It’s a great honor and gratitude to be
pharmacists in research and education process. All pharmacists, officials,
journalists, magazine analysts and associates that I met in this purpose, were
very kind and helpful. I’m thankful to Lauren Balukonis, account executive
within the beauty division at 5W Public Relations, working with both
entrepreneurs and established brands. I’m also grateful to seminar library of
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka and BANSDOC Library, Bangladesh for
providing me books, journal and newsletters. The greatest help was from
students and colleagues who continually supported me in collection and data
extraction from books, journals, newsletters and precious time in discussion
followed by providing information on different types of cosmetics in use. A
portion of this article is long been lectured as course material. So, it is
very much helpful for me to deliver better than before as many more things are
studied.
COMPLIANCE WITH THE
ETHICAL ISSUES
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Animal and Human experiment: N/A
Human Data Submission Approval: N/A
Consent for
publication
Consent to publish Individual Person’s data: N/A
Availability of data
and materials
Data sharing: Please contact author for data requests.
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no competing interests.
Funding
Funding from individual/Organization: N/A
Authors’
contributions
The individual contributions of authors: N/A
1.
Surber C,
Dragicevic N, Kottner J (2018) Skin care products for healthy and diseased
skin. Curr Probl Dermatol 54: 183-200.
2.
Del Rosso
JQ, Levin J (2011) The clinical relevance of maintaining the functional
integrity of the stratum corneum in both healthy and disease-affected skin. J
Clin Aesthet Dermatol 4: 22-42.
3.
Goodman G
(2009) Cleansing and moisturizing in acne patients. Am J Clin Dermatol 10: 1-6.
4.
Johnson
AW (2004) Overview: Fundamental skin care -Protecting the barrier. Dermatol
Ther 17: 1-5.
5.
Simion
FA, Abrutyn ES, Draelos ZD (2005) Ability of moisturizers to reduce dry skin
and irritation and to prevent their return. J Cosmet Sci 56: 427-444.
6.
Blaak J,
Staib P (2018) The relation of pH and skin cleansing. Curr Probl Dermatol 54:
132-142.
7.
(2013) Chapter
11. Semi-solid dosage forms. In: Alekha Dash, Somnath Singh, Justin Tolman.
Pharmaceutics: Basic Principles and Application to Pharmacy Practice, published
by Academic Press, ISBN 0123868912, 9780123868916.
8.
Swarbrick
J, Rubino JT, Rubino OP (2006) Chapter 22. Coarse Dispersions. In: Remington:
The Science and Practice of Pharmacy Volume 1, edited by David B. Troy, Paul
Beringer, published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 0781746736,
9780781746731.
9.
(1982)
Chapter 4. Skin Creams. In: Harry's Cosmeticology. 7th Edn, edited
by John Bernard Wilkinson, Raymond Jack Moore, published by Chemical Pub., ISBN
0820602957, 9780820602950.
10.
(2009)
Chapter 6. Creams and Liquid Emulsions for facial Cleansing. In: Handbook of
Cosmetic Skin Care. 2nd Edn, Informa Health Care, edited by Avi Shai, Howard I.
Maibach, Robert Baran, published by CRC Press, ISBN 9780415467186
11.
Ertel K (2000) Modern skin cleansers. Dermatol
Clin 18: 561-575.
12.
Kuehl BL,
Fyfe KS, Shear NH (2003) Cutaneous cleansers. Skin Ther Lett 8: 1-4.
13.
Park JH,
Lee JW, Kim YC, Prausnitz MR (2008) The effect of heat on skin permeability.
Int J Pharm 359: 94-103.
14.
https://www.cosmeticsandskin.com/ded/liquefying-cleansers.php
15.
Corazza
M, Lauriola MM, Zappaterra M, Bianchi A, Virgili A (2010) Surfactants, skin
cleansing protagonists. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 24: 1-6.
16.
Isoda K,
Seki T, Inoue Y, Umeda K, Nishizaka T, et al. (2015) Efficacy of the combined
use of a facial cleanser and moisturizers for the care of mild acne patients
with sensitive skin. J Dermatol 42: 181-188.
17.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Stearic acid,
CID=5281. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5281 (accessed on Apr. 17, 2019)
18.
Rowe RC,
Sheskey PJ, Quinn ME (2009) Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients. 6th
Edn, Pharmaceutical Press, ISBN 1582121354, 9781582121352.
19.
Rawlings
AV, Lombard KJ (2012) A review on the extensive skin benefits of mineral oil.
Int J Cosmet Sci 34: 511-518.
20.
Concin N,
Hofstetter G, Plattner B, Tomovski C, Fiselier K, et al. (2011) Evidence for
cosmetics as a source of mineral oil contamination in women. J Womens Health
(Larchmt) 20: 1713-1719.
21.
Ghadially
R, Halkier-Sorensen L, Elias PM (1992) Effects of petrolatum on stratum corneum
structure and function. J Am Acad Dermatol 26: 387-396.
22.
Czarnowicki
T, Malajian D, Khattri S, Correa da Rosa J, Dutt R, et al. (2016) Petrolatum:
Barrier repair and antimicrobial responses underlying this “inert” moisturizer.
J Allergy Clin Immunol 137: 1091-1102.
23.
Zondlo
Fiume M (2002) Final report on the safety assessment of acrylates copolymer and
33 related cosmetic ingredients. Int J Toxicol 21: 1-50.
24.
Wheeler T
(2011) Petroleum, oats, shea butter: Are 'natural' emollients best? Br J Nurs
20: 70.
25.
Hon KL,
Kung JSC, Ng WGG, Leung TF (2018) Emollient treatment of atopic dermatitis:
Latest evidence and clinical considerations. Drugs Context 7: 212530.
26.
Mandawgade
SD, Patravale VB (2008) Formulation and evaluation of exotic fat based
cosmeceuticals for skin repair. Indian J Pharm Sci 70: 539-542.
27.
Vadgama
RN, Odaneth AA, Lali AM (2015) Green synthesis of isopropyl myristate in novel
single phase medium Part I: Batch optimization studies. Biotechnol Rep (Amst)
8: 133-137.
28.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Sorbitan
monolaurate, CID=11046239. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/11046239 (accessed on Apr. 17, 2019).
29.
Kima C,
Hsieh YL (2001) Wetting and absorbency of non-ionic surfactant solutions on
cotton fabrics. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Aspects 187-188: 385-397.
30.
Karsa DR,
Donnelly PJ, Goode JM (2012) Surfactants applications directory. Published by
Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 9401130388, 9789401130387.
31.
Loden M,
Wessman W (2001) The influence of a cream containing 20% glycerin and its
vehicle on skin barrier properties. Int J Cosmet Sci 23: 115-119.
32.
Sethi A,
Kaur T, Malhotra SK, Gambhir ML (2016) Moisturizers: The slippery road. Indian
J Dermatol 61: 279-287.
33.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Sodium lauryl
sulfate, CID=3423265. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/3423265 (accessed on Apr. 17, 2019).
34.
Bondi CA,
Marks JL, Wroblewski LB, Raatikainen HS, Lenox SR, et al. (2015) Human and
environmental toxicity of sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS): Evidence for safe use in
household cleaning products. Environ Health Insights 9: 27-32.
35.
https://www.livestrong.com/article/334607-how-to-replace-sodium-lauryl-sulfate/
36.
https://bettersheabutter.com/sodium-lauryl-sulfate-what-it-is-and-how-to-avoid-it/
37.
Kerwin BA
(2008) Polysorbates 20 and 80 used in the formulation of protein
biotherapeutics: Structure and degradation pathways. J Pharm Sci 97: 2924-2935.
38.
Becker
LC, Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Hill RA, Klaassen CD, et al. (2018) Safety
assessment of polyether lanolins as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol 37: 19-27.
39.
Nasrollahi
SA, Ayatollahi A, Yazdanparast T, Samadi A, Hosseini H, et al. (2018)
Comparison of linoleic acid-containing water-in-oil emulsion with urea-containing
water-in-oil emulsion in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: A randomized
clinical trial. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 11: 21-28.
40.
Ghosh S,
Blankschtein D (2007) Why is sodium cocoyl isethionate (SCI) mild to the skin
barrier? - An in vitro investigation based on the relative sizes of the SCI
micelles and the skin aqueous pores. J Cosmet Sci 58: 229-244.
41.
Fiume MM,
Heldreth B, Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Hill RA, et al. (2013) Safety assessment
of triethanolamine and triethanolamine-containing ingredients as used in
cosmetics. Int J Toxicol 32: 59-83.
42.
Schmitt
WH (2012) Chapter 3. Skin Care Products. S.D. In: Williams, W.H. Schmitt.
Chemistry and Technology of the Cosmetics and Toiletries Industry. Published by
Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 9400915551, 9789400915558, pp:
104-120.
43.
Halevi S,
Shai A (2009) Chapter 3. Principles in the Preparation of Medical and Cosmetic
Products. In: handbook of Cosmetic Skin Care. 2nd Edn, Informa
Health Care: Cosmetic Skin Care, Volume 1 of Handbook of Cosmetic Skin Care,
published by Bukupedia, p: 20.
44.
https://cosmeticsandskin.com/aba/cold-cream.php
45.
Marquez
R, Forgiarini AM, Langevin D, Salager JL (2018) Instability of emulsions made
with surfactant-oil-water systems at optimum formulation with ultralow
interfacial tension. Langmuir 34: 9252-9263.
46.
Baloch
MK, Hameed G (2005) Emulsification of oil in water as affected by different
parameters. J Colloid Interface Sci 285: 804-813.
47.
Draelos
ZD (2000) Cosmetics and skin care products. A historical perspective. Dermatol
Clin 18: 557-559.
48.
Ralph GH
(1982) Chapter 4. Skin Creams. In: Wilkinson JB, Moore RJ, editors. Harry’s
Cosmeticology. 7th Edn. London, UK: George Godwin, pp: 50-73.
49.
Jones ER
(1912) Greasy cold creams. J Am Pharm Assoc 4: 708-714.
50.
Galen
(2002) Selected Works (Oxford World's Classics). Published by Oxford University
Press; New edition. ISBN-10: 0192839373 ISBN-13: 978-0192839374.
51.
Hubbard
SA (1998) Comparative toxicology of borates. Biol Trace Elem Res 66: 343-357.
52.
https://www.lybrate.com/topic/borax-benefits-and-side-effects
53.
Pongsavee
M (2009) Effect of borax on immune cell proliferation and sister chromatid
exchange in human chromosomes. J Occup Med Toxicol 4: 27.
54.
Fort DJ,
Propst TL, Stover EL (1998) Adverse reproductive and developmental effects in
Xenopus from insufficient boron. Biol Trace Elem Res 66: 237.
55.
Lanoue L,
Taubeneck MW, Muniz J (1998) Assessing the effects of low boron diets on
embryonic and fetal development in rodents using in vitro and in vivo model
systems. Biol Trace Elem Res 66: 271.
56.
Fort DJ,
Fort TD, Mathis MB, Ball RW (2016) Boric acid is reproductively toxic to adult Xenopus laevis, but not endocrine
active. Toxicol Sci 154: 16-26.
57.
https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/bd/29/9d/4c6acecb4b2b08/imgb0003.png
58.
https://www.scratchmommy.com/the-truth-about-borax-in-skincare/
59.
https://www.theherbarie.com/Sodium-Behenoyl-Lactylate.html
60.
https://cosmetics.specialchem.com/product/i-the-herbarie-sodium-behenoyl-lactylate
61.
Cornara
L, Biagi M, Xiao J, Burlando B (2017) Therapeutic properties of bioactive
compounds from different honeybee products. Front Pharmacol 8: 412.
62.
Kameda T
(2004) Molecular structure of crude beeswax studied by solid-state 13C NMR. J
Insect Sci 4: 29.
63.
https://www.chemicalbook.com/ProductChemicalPropertiesCB1303742_EN.htm
64.
https://www.lubrizol.com/Personal-Care/Products/Product-Finder/Products-Data/95
65.
Speckman
RA, Collins EB (1982) Microbial production of 2,3-butylene glycol from cheese
whey. Appl Environ Microbiol 43: 1216-1218.
66.
Aizawa A,
Ito A, Masui Y, Ito M (2014) Case of allergic contact dermatitis due to
1,3-butylene glycol. J Dermatol 41: 815-816.
67.
Jang HJ,
Shin CY, Kim KB (2015) Safety evaluation of polyethylene glycol (PEG) compounds
for cosmetic use. Toxicol Res 31: 105-136.
68.
https://www.ewg.org/skindeep/ingredient/721388/PEG-100_STEARATE/
69.
https://thedermreview.com/peg-100-stearate/
70.
https://uk.lush.com/ingredients/glyceryl-stearate-peg-100-stearate
71.
Asarch A,
Scheinman PL (2008) Sorbitan sesquioleate: An emerging contact allergen.
Dermatitis 19: 339-341.
72.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Sorbitan
sesquioleate, CID=71308589. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/71308589 (accessed on Apr. 17, 2019)
73.
https://www.truthinaging.com/ingredients/sorbitan-sesquioleate
74.
https://cosmeticsinfo.org/ingredient/glyceryl-stearate
75.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Glyceryl
monostearate, CID=24699. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/24699 (accessed on Apr. 17, 2019)
76.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. 1-Hexadecanol,
CID=2682. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/2682 (accessed on Apr 17, 2019)
77.
https://www.paulaschoice-eu.com/alcohol-in-skincare-the-facts
78.
Ash M
(2004) Handbook of Green Chemicals. Published by Synapse Info Resources, ISBN
1890595799, 9781890595791, p: 665.
79.
Rieger M,
Rhein LD (1997) Surfactants in cosmetics. 2nd Edn, Volume 68. Surfactant
Science, Published by CRC Press, ISBN 0824798058, 9780824798055.
80.
Lynde CW
(2001) Moisturizers: What they are and how they work? Skin Ther Lett 6.
81.
Pellicoro
C, Marsella R, Ahrens K (2013) Pilot study to evaluate the effect of topical
dimethicone on clinical signs and skin barrier function in dogs with naturally
occurring atopic dermatitis. Vet Med Int 2013: 239186.
82.
https://dewolfchem.com/shop/glydant-plus/
83.
Fartasch
M, Teal J, Menon GK (1997) Mode of action of glycolic acid on human stratum
corneum: Ultrastructural and functional evaluation of the epidermal barrier.
Arch Dermatol Res 289: 404-409.
84.
Rouvrais
C, Baspeyras M, Mengeaud V, Rossi AB (2018) Antiaging efficacy of a
retinaldehyde-based cream compared with glycolic acid peel sessions: A
randomized controlled study. J Cosmet Dermatol 17: 1136-1143.
85.
Kornhauser
A, Wei RR, Yamaguchi Y, Coelho SG, Kaidbey K, et al. (2009) The effects of
topically applied glycolic acid and salicylic acid on ultraviolet
radiation-induced erythema, DNA damage and sunburn cell formation in human
skin. J Dermatol Sci 55: 10-17.
86.
Maia
Campos PM, Gaspar LR, Gonçalves GM, Pereira LH, Semprini M, et al. (2015)
Comparative effects of retinoic acid or glycolic acid vehiculated in different
topical formulations. Biomed Res Int 2015: 650316.
87.
Tang SC,
Yang JH (2018) Dual effects of alpha-hydroxy acids on the skin. Molecules 23:
863.
88.
Hung SJ,
Tang SC, Liao PY, Ge JS, Hsiao YP, et al. (2017) Photoprotective potential of
glycolic acid by reducing NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasome complex proteins in UVB
radiation-induced normal human epidermal keratinocytes and mice. DNA Cell Biol
36: 177-187.
89.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Vitamin E
acetate, CID=86472. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/86472 (accessed on Apr. 18, 2019).
90.
Keen MA,
Hassan I (2016) Vitamin E in dermatology. Indian Dermatol Online J 7: 311-315.
91.
Burke KE,
Clive J, Combs GF Jr, Commisso J, Keen CL, et al. (2000) Effects of topical and
oral vitamin E on pigmentation and skin cancer induced by ultraviolet
irradiation in Skh:2 hairless mice. Nutr Cancer 38: 87-97.
92.
National
Center for Biotechnology Information (2019) PubChem Database. Ascorbyl
palmitate, CID=54680660. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/54680660 (accessed on Apr. 18, 2019).
93.
Meves A,
Stock SN, Beyerle A, Pittelkow MR, Peus D (2002) Vitamin C derivative ascorbyl
palmitate promotes ultraviolet-B-induced lipid peroxidation and cytotoxicity in
keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 119: 1103-1108.
94.
Gosenca
M, Obreza A, Pecar S, Gašperlin M (2010) A new approach for increasing ascorbyl
palmitate stability by addition of non-irritant co-antioxidant. AAPS Pharm
SciTech 11: 1485-1492.
95.
Spiclin
P, Gasperlin M, Kmetec V (2001) Stability of ascorbyl palmitate in topical
microemulsions. Int J Pharm 222: 271-279.
96.
https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/ucm107940.htm
97.
Kasture
PV, Paradkar AR (2015) Pharmaceutics – Ii. published by Pragati Books Pvt. Ltd.
ISBN 8185790221, 9788185790220, p: 159.
98.
http://www.australab.com/blog/making-cosmetics-makeup/
99.
Milani M,
Sparavigna A (2018) Anti-aging efficacy of melatonin-based day and night
creams: A randomized, split-face, assessor-blinded proof-of-concept trial. Clin
Cosmet Investig Dermatol 11: 51-57.
100.Khanna N, Datta Gupta S (2002) Rejuvenating
facial massage-a bane or boon? Int J Dermatol 41: 407-410.
101.National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK) (2014)
The prevention and management of pressure ulcers in primary and secondary care.
London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK); (NICE Clinical
Guidelines, No. 179.) 10, Skin massage. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK333138/
102.Rawlings AV (2006) Cellulite and its treatment.
Int J Cosmet Sci 28: 175-190.
103.https://www.massagewarehouse.com/shop-by-department/oils-creams-and-lotions/massage-creams/
104.Field T (2016) Massage therapy research review.
Complement Ther Clin Pract 24: 19-31.
105.Chatchawan U, Eungpinichpong W, Plandee P,
Yamauchi J (2015) Effects of Thai foot massage on balance performance in
diabetic patients with peripheral neuropathy: A randomized parallel-controlled
trial. Med Sci Monit Basic Res 21: 68-75.
106.Agarwal KN, Gupta A, Pushkarna R, Bhargava SK,
Faridi MM, et al. (2000) Effects of massage and use of oil on growth, blood
flow and sleep pattern in infants. Indian J Med Res 112: 212-217.
107.Supa'at I, Zakaria Z, Maskon O, Aminuddin A,
Nordin NA (2013) Effects of Swedish massage therapy on blood pressure, heart
rate and inflammatory markers in hypertensive women. Evid Based Complement
Alternat Med 2013: 171852.
108.Rose L (2016) Should i use massage oils,
creams, lotions or waxes? Massage Warehouse Blog.
109.https://www.personalcaremagazine.com/formulation-details/2171/lightening-night-cream?companyid=1325
110.https://www.uswatersystems.com/deionized-water-vs-distilled-water
111.https://www.ewg.org/skindeep/ingredient/702630/GLYCERYL_CAPRYLATE/
112.https://cosmeticsinfo.org/ingredient/glyceryl-caprylate
113.Furuishi T, Fukami T, Suzuki T, Takayama K,
Tomono K (2010) Synergistic effect of isopropyl myristate and glyceryl
monocaprylate on the skin permeation of pentazocine. Biol Pharm Bull 33:
294-300.
114. Papageorgiou S, Varvaresou A, Tsirivas E,
Demetzos C (2010) New alternatives to cosmetics preservation. J Cosmet Sci 61:
107-123.
115. https://madeof.com/blog/is-glyceryl-caprylate-safe-for-baby
116.(2019) Artificial preservatives in skincare:
Why they are not worth the risk? Web FEY Cosmetics.
117.Takeuchi A, Kamiryou Y, Yamada H, Eto M,
Shibata K, et al. (2009) Oral administration of xanthan gum enhances antitumor
activity through Toll-like receptor 4. Int Immunopharmacol 9: 1562-1567.
118. Parente ME, Ochoa Andrade A, Ares G, Russo F,
Jiménez-Kairuz Á (2015) Bioadhesive hydrogels for cosmetic applications. Int J
Cosmet Sci 37: 511-518.
119.Kumar A, Rao KM, Han SS (2018) Application of
xanthan gum as polysaccharide in tissue engineering: A review. Carbohydr Polym
180: 128-144.
120.http://lucasmeyercosmetics.com/en/products/product.php?id=66
121.Fiume Z (2001) Final report on the safety
assessment of lecithin and hydrogenated lecithin. Int J Toxicol 20: 21-45.
122. Kanti V, Günther M, Stroux A, Sawatzky S,
Henrich W, et al. (2017) Influence of sunflower seed oil or baby lotion on the
skin barrier function of newborns: A pilot study. J Cosmet Dermatol 16:
500-507.
123. Darmstadt GL, Mao-Qiang M, Chi E, Saha SK,
Ziboh VA, et al. (2002) Impact of tropical oils on the skin barrier: Possible
implications for neonatal health in developing countries. Acta Pediatr 91:
546-554.
124.Kanti V, Grande C, Stroux A, Bührer C,
Blume-Peytavi U, et al. (2014) Influence of sunflower seed oil on the skin
barrier function of preterm infants: A randomized controlled trial. Dermatology
229: 230-239.
125. Danby SG, AlEnezi T, Sultan A, Lavender T,
Chittock J, et al. (2013) Effect of olive and sunflower seed oil on the adult
skin barrier: Implications for neonatal skin care. Pediatr Dermatol 30: 42-50.
126.Masson P, Merot F, Bardot J (1990) Influence of
hazelnut oil phospholipids on the skin moisturizing effect of a cosmetic
emulsion. Int J Cosmet Sci 12: 243-251.
127.Varinia Michalun V, DiNardo JC (2014) Skin care
and cosmetic ingredients dictionary. Published by Cengage Learning, ISBN
1285060792, 9781285060798.
128.https://www.annmariegianni.com/vitamin-e-for-skin-tocopherol-the-classic-antioxidant/
129.Megnanou RM, Niamke S (2015) Improving the
optimized shea butter quality: A great potential of utilization for common
consumers and industrials. Springer Plus 4: 667.
130.Ajala EO, Aberuagba F, Olaniyan AM, Onifade KR
(2016) Optimization of solvent extraction of shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa)
using response surface methodology and its characterization. J Food Sci Technol
53: 730-738.
131.https://asia.in-cosmetics.com/__novadocuments/17685?v=634874761651870000
132.https://infinity-ingredients.co.uk/assets/uploads/.../Infinity-Anti-ageing-Range-21.pdf
133.https://cosmetics.specialchem.com/product/i-lucas-meyer-cosmetics-exo-t
134.https://www.ulprospector.com/en/eu/PersonalCare/Detail/4499/125064/Tyrostat-9
135.Pastor-Nieto MA, Alcántara-Nicolás F,
Melgar-Molero V, Pérez-Mesonero R, Vergara-Sánchez A, et al. (2017)
Preservatives in personal hygiene and cosmetic products, topical medications
and household cleaners in Spain. Actas Dermosifiliogr 108: 758-770.
136.Ishikawa J, Yoshida H, Ito S, Naoe A, Fujimura
T, et al. (2013) Dry skin in the winter is related to the ceramide profile in
the stratum corneum and can be improved by treatment with a Eucalyptus extract.
J Cosmet Dermatol 12: 3-11.
137.Kikuchi K, Kobayashi H, Hirao T, Ito A,
Takahashi H, et al. (2003) Improvement of
mild inflammatory changes of the facial skin induced by winter
environment with daily applications of a moisturizing cream. A half-side test
of biophysical skin parameters, cytokine expression pattern and the formation
of cornified envelope. Dermatology 207: 269-275.
138.https://totalbodyconcept.co.nz/blog/2018/06/winter-treatments-source-marine-facial-and-cold-cr
139.https://www.vintage-adventures.com/vintage-cosmetics-beauty-shaving-ads/2667-1961-pond-s-skin-cream-ad-special-formula-care.html
140.(2017) The Laszlo Glow. Imagine telling the
most beautiful women in the world, “You need to wash your face.” Elements
Beauty Blog.
141.Draelos ZD (2019) Cosmeceuticals: What's real,
what's not. Dermatol Clin 37: 107-115.
142.Draelos ZD (2019) A novel approach to enhancing
the quality and appearance of photoaged skin. J Drugs Dermatol 18: 28-31.
143.Lam C. Benefits of Day and Night Creams. Blog
Let's Roll With Carol
144.Farris P, Zeichner J, Berson D (2016) Efficacy
and tolerability of a skin brightening/anti-aging cosmeceutical containing
retinol 0.5%, niacinamide, hexylresorcinol and resveratrol. J Drugs Dermatol
15: 863-868.
145.Walters RM, Mao G, Gunn ET, Hornby S (2012)
Cleansing formulations that respect skin barrier integrity. Dermatol Res Pract
2012: 495917.
146.Hamed SH, Assakir I, Almalty AM, Bweir S (2012)
Does massage post-application improve moisturizer's efficacy? A 2 week
regression study. J Cosmet Dermatol 11: 239-244.
147.Pyke C (2010) Massage: A helping hand for
people with chronic edema and lymphoedema. Br J Community Nurs 15: 28-30.
148.Barclay J, Vestey J, Lambert A, Balmer C (2006)
Reducing the symptoms of lymphoedema: Is there a role for aromatherapy? Eur J
Oncol Nurs 10: 140-149.
149.Miyaji A, Sugimori K, Hayashi N (2018) Short-
and long-term effects of using a facial massage roller on facial skin blood
flow and vascular reactivity. Complement Ther Med 41: 271-276.
150. Holck DE, Ng JD (2003) Facial skin
rejuvenation. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 14: 246-252.
151.Hatayama T, Kitamura S, Tamura C, Nagano M,
Ohnuki K (2008) The facial massage reduced anxiety and negative mood status and
increased sympathetic nervous activity. Biomed Res 29: 317-320.
152.Aldag C, Nogueira Teixeira D, Leventhal PS
(2016) Skin rejuvenation using cosmetic products containing growth factors,
cytokines and matrikines: A review of the literature. Clin Cosmet Investig
Dermatol 9: 411-419.
153.Diana, Princess of Wales (1998) Given by the
photographer's widow, Diana Donovan. Web National Portrait Gallery, UK.
154.Picard C (2017) 25 Beauty secrets to steal from
Princess Diana. Web GoodHousekeeping.com
155.Nahar VK, Wilkerson AH, Ghafari G, Martin B,
Black WH, et al. (2018) Skin cancer knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and
prevention practices among medical students: A systematic search and literature
review. Int J Womens Dermatol 4: 139-149.
156.Byun SY, Kwon SH, Heo SH, Shim JS, Du MH, et
al. (2015) Efficacy of slimming cream containing 3.5% water-soluble caffeine
and xanthenes for the treatment of cellulite: Clinical study and literature
review. Ann Dermatol 27: 243-249.
157.http://www.thepersonalformulator.com/formulations/friendly/massagecream.htm
158.https://thedermreview.com/ethylhexyl-palmitate/
159.Guo X, Mei N (2016) Aloe vera: A review of
toxicity and adverse clinical effects. J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog
Ecotoxicol Rev 34: 77-96.
160.Kapoor S, Saraf S (2010) Assessment of viscoelasticity
and hydration effect of herbal moisturizers using bioengineering techniques.
Pharmacogn Mag 6: 298-304.
161.Levin J, Miller R (2010) A guide to the
ingredients and potential benefits of over-the-counter cleansers and
moisturizers for rosacea patients. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 4: 31-49.
162.https://www.saveoncitric.com/cealandce208.html
163.https://www.livestrong.com/article/265547-how-to-get-elmers-glue-out-of-hair/
164.Bail S, Stuebiger G, Krist S, Unterweger H,
Buchbauer G (2008) Characterisation of various grape seed oils by volatile
compounds, triacylglycerol composition, total phenols and antioxidant capacity.
Food Chem 108: 1122-1132.
165.https://www.lorealparisusa.com/ingredient-library/caprylic.aspx
166.Dayan N, Sivalenka R, Chase J (2009) Skin
moisturization by hydrogenated polyisobutene--quantitative and visual
evaluation. J Cosmet Sci 60: 15-24.
167. Personal Care Product Preservatives and the
Truth (Part II). Web Nature’s Complement.
168.https://www.chemistrystore.com/Preservatives-Germaben_II-E.html
169.https://www.revolvy.com/page/Germaben
170.Grammaticopoulos GT, Furtunopoulos DG, Zisova
LG (2004) Topically applied vitamins and their cutaneous effects. Folia Med
(Plovdiv) 46: 18-24.
171.Yang M, Moclair B, Hatcher V, Kaminetsky J,
Mekas M, et al. (2014) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of
a novel pantothenic Acid-based dietary supplement in subjects with mild to
moderate facial acne. Dermatol Ther (Heidelb) 4: 93-101.
171.
172.Schagen SK, Zampeli VA, Makrantonaki E,
Zouboulis CC (2012) Discovering the link between nutrition and skin aging.
Dermatoendocrinol 4: 298-307.
173.Tanaka M, Okada M, Zhen YX, Inamura N, Kitano
T, et al. (1998) Decreased hydration state of the stratum corneum and reduced
amino acid content of the skin surface in patients with seasonal allergic
rhinitis. Br J Dermatol 139: 618-621.
174.van Logtestijn MD, Domínguez-Hüttinger E,
Stamatas GN, Tanaka RJ (2015) Resistance to water diffusion in the stratum
corneum is depth-dependent. PLoS One 10: 0117292.
175.Spada F, Barnes TM, Greive KA (2018) Skin
hydration is significantly increased by a cream formulated to mimic the skin's
own natural moisturizing systems. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 11: 491-497.
176.Greive K (2015) Cleansers and moisturisers: The
basics. Wound Pract Res 23: 76-81.
177.Levin J, Miller R (2011) A guide to the
ingredients and potential benefits of over-the-counter cleansers and
moisturizers for rosacea patients. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 4: 31-49.
178.Lee T, Friedman A (2016) Skin barrier health:
Regulation and repair of the stratum corneum and the role of over-the-counter
skin care. J Drugs Dermatol 15: 1047-1051.
179.Towey JJ, Dougan L (2012) Structural
examination of the impact of glycerol on water structure. J Phys Chem B 116:
1633-1641.
180.Jownie JB (2010) Understanding moisturizers and
their clinical benefits. Pract Dermatol Pediatr, pp: 19-22.
181.Lodén M (2003) Role of topical emollients and
moisturizers in the treatment of dry skin barrier disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol
4: 771-788.
182.Schwarz K, Huang SW, German JB, Tiersch B,
Hartmann J, et al. (2000) Activities of antioxidants are affected by colloidal
properties of oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions and bulk oils. J Agric
Food Chem 48: 4874-4882.
183.Moore K (2018) What causes dry skin and how to
treat it. medically? Cynthia Cobb, DNP, APRN. Healthline.
184.https://cosmeticsinfo.org/ingredient/isopropyl-linoleate-0
185.Ballmann C, Mueller BW (2008) Stabilizing
effect of cetostearyl alcohol and glyceryl monostearate as co-emulsifiers on
hydrocarbon-free O/W glyceride creams. Pharm Dev Technol 13: 433-445.
186.Kurohane K, Kimura A, Terasawa R, Sahara Y,
Kobayashi K, et al. (2015) Adjuvant effect of an alternative plasticizer,
diisopropyl adipate, on a contact hypersensitivity mouse model: Link with
sensory ion channel TRPA1 activation. Biol Pharm Bull 38: 1054-1062.
187.https://www.chemoxy.com/products-and-applications/products/chemoxycare-range/diisopropyl-adipate/
188.https://www.truthinaging.com/ingredients/peg-40-stearate
189.https://blackpaint.sg/alcohol-in-skincare/
190.https://www.truthinaging.com/ingredients/ceteareth-20
191.Johnson W Jr, Heldreth B, Bergfeld WF, Belsito
DV, Hill RA, et al. (2016) Safety assessment of polyquaternium-22 and
polyquarternium-39 as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol 35: 47-53.
192. http://www.t3db.ca/toxins/T3D3633
193.National Center for Biotechnology Information
(2019) PubChem Database. Hydroxyethylcellulose, CID=4327536. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/4327536 (accessed on Apr. 20, 2019).
194.National Center for Biotechnology Information
(2019) PubChem Database. Propylene glycol, CID=1030. Available at: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1030 (accessed on Apr. 20, 2019).
195.Wan DC, Wong VW, Longaker MT, Yang GP, Wei FC
(2014) Moisturizing different racial skin types. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 7:
25-32.
196.https://www.medicinenet.com/image-collection/xerosis_picture/picture.htm
197.https://plasticsurgerykey.com/the-influence-of-emollients-on-dermal-and-transdermal-drug-delivery/
198.Purnamawati S, Indrastuti N, Danarti R,
Saefudin T (2017) The role of moisturizers in addressing various kinds of
dermatitis: A review. Clin Med Res 15: 75-87.
199.Dyble T, Ashton J (2011) Use of emollients in
the treatment of dry skin conditions. Br J Community Nurs 16: 214, 216, 218
200.Lodén M (2005) The clinical benefit of
moisturizers. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 19: 672-88.
201.Lazar AP, Lazar P (1991) Dry skin, water and
lubrication. Dermatol Clin 9: 45-51.
202.Nalawade TM, Bhat K, Sogi SH (2015)
Bactericidal activity of propylene glycol, glycerine, polyethylene glycol 400
and polyethylene glycol 1000 against selected microorganisms. J Int Soc Prev
Community Dent 5: 114-119.
203.Shokrollahi K (2017) Paraffin-based ointments
and fire hazard: Understanding the problem, navigating the media and currently
available downloadable patient information. Scars Burn Heal 3:
2059513117704932.
204.Nola I, Kostović K, Kotrulja L, Lugović L
(2003) The use of emollients as sophisticated therapy in dermatology. Acta
Dermatovenerol Croat 11: 80-87.
205.Ugandar RE, Deivi KS (2013) Formulation and
evaluation of natural palm oil based vanishing cream. IJPSR 4: 3375-3380.
206.https://www.createwithcream.ph/knowyourcream/types-of-cream
207.Draelos ZD (2010) Active agents in common skin
care products. Plast Reconstr Surg 125: 719-724.
208.Draelos ZD (2011) Cosmetics and dermatologic
problems and solutions. CRC Press. ISBN 1841847410, 9781841847412.
209.Kurz SW, Monte T (2006) Awakening beauty: The
Dr. Hauschka way. Clairview Books. ISBN 1905570031, 9781905570034.
210.Pfenninger JL, Fowler GC (2010) Pfenninger and
Fowler's procedures for primary care. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN
1455700924, 9781455700929.
211.Butler H (2013) Poucher’s perfumes, cosmetics
and soaps. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9401727341,
9789401727341.
212.http://www.differencebetween.info/difference-between-moisturizer-and-cold-cream
213.Choquenet B, Couteau C, Paparis E, Coiffard LJ
(2009) Foundations and self-tanning products: Do they provide any protection
from the sun? J Dermatol 36: 587-591.
214.Lee SY, Baek JH, Shin MK, Koh JS (2014) The
quantitative analysis of spreadability, coverage and adhesion effect after
application of the base make-up product. Skin Res Technol 20: 341-346.
215.Pierce A (2012) Milady's aesthetician series:
Treating diverse pigmentation. Cengage Learning. ISBN 1133712193,
9781133712190.
216.https://knowledge.ulprospector.com/7389/pcc-contemporary-foundation-formulations/
217.http://www.naijapr.com/shocking-side-effect-of-foundation-cream/
218.Abraham A, Roga G (2014) Topical
steroid-damaged skin. Indian J Dermatol 59: 456-459.
219.Singh A. Pharmaceutical creams. Web
slideshare.net
220.Brotherton H (2018) These are the foundations
celebrities swear by Kim Kardashian to Gigi Hadid Glamour Magazine.
221.Blackstone T (2018) Jessica Alba's Reinvention.
Redbook.
-
Table 1 -
Table 2
-
Table 3
-
Table 4
-
Table 5
-
Table 6
-
Table 7
-
Table 8
-
Table 9
-
Table 10
-
Table 11
-
Table 12
QUICK LINKS
- SUBMIT MANUSCRIPT
- RECOMMEND THE JOURNAL
-
SUBSCRIBE FOR ALERTS
RELATED JOURNALS
- International Journal of Anaesthesia and Research (ISSN:2641-399X)
- Journal of Renal Transplantation Science (ISSN:2640-0847)
- Journal of Spine Diseases
- International Journal of Clinical Case Studies and Reports (ISSN:2641-5771)
- Journal of Clinical Trials and Research (ISSN:2637-7373)
- Oncology Clinics and Research (ISSN: 2643-055X)
- Journal of Alcoholism Clinical Research
